Person Handbook 



on 



ALLOx ai£/IS.La 



G . Va n Dyke 




Steel Hammer. Used for general forging, such as billets, shafts, 
special shapes, etc. 



SHOP HANDBOOK 

ON 

ALLOY STEELS 



A technical subject 

treated in a 
non-technical way 



G. VAN DYKE 

Manager, Special Steel Department 
Joseph T. Ryerson & Son 



Joseph T. Ryerson & Son 

ESTABLISHED 1842 INCORPORATED 1888 

IRON STEEL MACHINERY 

CHICAGO ST. LOUIS DETROIT BUFFALO NEW YORK 






COPTRIQHT, 1921 

Joseph T. Ryerson & Son 
Chicago 



APR -4 1921 
§10.6608990 

-2 \^Q/o,, 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Detailed index will be found on the 
following page 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I Quality (Analysis not the only factor) ... 12 

II Method of Manufacture 15 

III Elements and the Part They Play 16 

IV How to Buy and Select Alloy Steels 21 

V Shop Equipment 28 

VI Furnaces 29 

VII Quenching Equipment 33 

VIII Heat Measurement 36 

IX Heating 39 

X Cooling and Quenching . . 43 

XI Drawing 48 

XII Annealing 50 

XIII Testing Heat Treated Steel 54 

XIV Case Hardening or Carbonizing 58 

XV General Remarks 66 



[7] 



DETAILED INDEX 



Alloy Steel PA °® 

Untreated 25 

Low Carbon 26 

High Carbon 26 

Analyses of Alloy Steels ^ 

22, 23, 93, 94, 95 

Annealing 60, 51, 52 

Overheated Steel 53 

Axles 21 

B 

Ball Bearing Steel 19 

Baths 

Lead, Salt, Oil 30 

Barium Chloride 31 

Bolts 21, 23, 26 

Brinell Hardness 55 

Buying Alloy Steels 12, 13, 66 

C 

Calcium Chloride 31 

Cams 21 

Carbon 

Effect of 16 

Steels 16, 17, 93 

Crucible Machinery 16 

Carbonizing 58 

Case Hardening 58 

Mixtures 59, 60 

Boxes 60 

Temperature 59, 61 

Furnaces 61 

Depth of 59, 61, 62 

Heat Treatment Following 62 

Formulae 92 

Experiments 63 

Packing 64,71 

Common Steel 71 

Chromium 

Effect of 19, 20 

Amount in Different Steels 19 

Nickel 19, 95 

Vanadium 19, 94 

Connecting Rods 21, 27 

Cooling 43 

Rate of 44,45 

Core Examination 65 

Cost 12, 15 

Countershafts 27 

Cracking, Cause of 69, 70 

Crankshafts 21, 27 

Critical Temperature 17, 43, 44 

Range 43, 44 

Crucible Process 15 

Crystallization 26 

Cyanide of Potassium 31 

Cyanide Hardening 64 

D 

Dead Soft Steel 16 

Drawing 48, 49, 70 

E 

Electric Furnace Process 15 

Elements, Refer under Names. 

Expansion 39, 40 

F 

Fatigue 26 

Forging Alloy Steels 72 

Fuel, Amount Used 41 

Furnaces 29 

Atmosphere 41, 50, 72 

Constant Temperature 40 

Using Two In Heat Treatment 40, 41 

Temperature, Excessive 70 

G 

Gears 21, 27 

H 

Hardening Tool Steel 12 

Hardness 17, 55 

Relation to Strength 56, 57 

Heating 39, 67 

Effect of Rapid 69 



H — Continued pAQ> 

Heat Treater, Duty of 38 

Heat Treatment, Records 68 

Heat Measurement 36, 37 

High Speed Steel 19 

Hot Working Die Steel 19 

I 

Initial Cost 13 

Inspection 12 

J 
Jack Shaft 21 

L 

Lathe Spindles 27 

Lead Bath 30 

M 

Machinery Steel 16 

Tools 27 

Manganese, Effect of 18 

Steel 18, 95 

Manufacture, Method of 12, 15 

Mild Steel 16 

N 

Nickel, Effect of 20 

Nickel Steels 20, 93 

Nuts 21, 23 

O 

Oil Bath (for Heating) 30, 31 

Open Hearth Process 15 

Ordering 15, 21 

P 

Packing for Case Hardening 64 

Phosphorus, Effect of 17 

Physical Properties, Definitions of 79 
Properties of Alloy Steels. . .22, 26, 27 
Pyrometer 

Electric 36, 37 

Optical 36. 37 

Checking 37,73 

Q 

Quality 12, 15 

Quenching 

Equipment 33 

What Happens 33 

Medium 34, 45 

Tanks 34 

Points to Watch 34, 45. 46, 47 

Medium, Agitation of 46 

Rising and Falling Temperature. 68 
R 

Roller Bearing Steel 19 

Rolling 12 

S 

S. A. E. Specifications 

22, 23, 74, 93, 94, 95 

Salt Bath 30,31 

Scleroscope Hardness 55 

Selection of Alloy Steels 21 

Shop Equipment 28 

Silicon, Effect of 18 

Size, Effect of 45 

Sodium Chloride 31 

Spring Clips 26 

Substitutions 24, 25 

Sulphur, Effect of 18 

Surface Defects 12 

T 

Tensile Strength 54, 55, 79 

Testing 54 

Testing Machines 54 

Tool Steel 12 

U 
Uniform Furnace Temperature ... 30 

W 
Warehouse Stocks 21 



[8] 



INTRODUCTION 

THE alloy steel industry has shown remarkable 
growth and development during the last 
five or six years. 

The World War and the automobile industry have 
been the principal factors in this development. 

The advent of the automobile made it necessary 
to produce steels having great strength and also a 
ductility or toughness far beyond that of the better 
known carbon steels. Alloy steel research work has 
therefore been carried on by certain steel manu- 
facturers and also by the members of the automobile 
industry, and as a consequence remarkable results 
have been obtained in a short time. 

To the steel using fraternity in general the highly 
successful nature of the results of this experimental 
work in alloy steels has been fairly well known, but 
coupled with this knowledge has too often come the 
belief that the use of alloy steel involved the handling 
of various mysterious and secret processes which 
were summed up under the general heading of "heat 
treatment." 

As a result, while many people recognized the 
decided advantages of alloy steels, they hesitated to 
use them, believing that satisfactory results could 
only be obtained by the maintenance of large, 
expensive laboratories coupled with the services of 
highly trained technical men. 

While more general use of alloy steels had been 
making itself apparent prior to the great war, 
progress has been extremely slow. Coupled with 
the entrance of our country into the conflict came 
the heavy demand for automobile trucks, ordnance, 
armor plate, steel helmets, and the many other army 

[9] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

and navy requirements which could only be manu- 
factured successfully by the use of the highest types 
and best grades of alloy steels, and then only when 
these steels were subjected to careful and accurate 
heat treatment. 

Our government arsenals, of course, have long 
been familiar with the use of alloy steels in the 
manufacture of guns, armor piercing shells, rifle 
barrels, and other naval and military equipment, but 
their productive capacity was naturally too small 
to turn out the large quantity of material necessary 
to meet the emergency. To supplement the manu- 
facturing facilities of the few highly specialized shops, 
it was necessary for the manufacturers of the country 
in general to take up the production of government 
material, and thus it followed that many shops that 
had never before used alloy steels found themselves 
buying, machining, and heat treating these special 
steels, and found also that they could obtain entirely 
satisfactory results. 

The present situation is such that alloy steel parts 
are in demand by all industries and that these steels 
are coming into more general use every day. 

Representative steel-service plants of the country 
are carrying alloy steel bars in stock the same as 
any other standard steel product. 

Alloy steels have come to stay, and every day 
finds some heavy part which had previously been 
made of carbon steel replaced with a lighter, tougher, 
and better part made from one of the various com- 
mercial grades of 3 3^2 per cent nickel, chrome nickel, 
or other special steels. 

It is the purpose of this book to avoid all tech- 
nicalities and to condense in a small space sufficient 
information to enable the average shop superin- 
tendent to take hold of a special job, select and buy 
the steel for it, and finally to give it such heat 
treatment as will produce the desired result. 

[10] 



ALLOY 



T E E L 



TOOK 



Free and generous exchange of views and ideas by 
members of the trade are always of value and 
interest. 

The various heat treaters organizations about the 
country have done much along this line, and will 
undoubtedly do much more to spread practical 
information in the future. 

During our association with many of the leaders 
in the manufacture and use of alloy steel, and 
membership in various societies and associations, we 
have built up a fund of information, data and 
experience which of necessity can not all be included 
in this small book, but which is available for all who 
seek it. 




JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 



CHAPTER I 

QUALITY 

(Analysis not the only factor) 

IT seems appropriate at the start to call the 
attention of the reader to the matter of quality 
of the alloy steel which he may contemplate 
buying and using. 

Practically all users of alloy steels have been in 
the past, or are at present, users of tool steels, and 
they will therefore understand that chemical anal- 
ysis is far from being the only factor governing the 
ultimate result to be obtained from the use of any 
steel. 

All tool and die makers know the difference be- 
tween a piece of common grade tool steel and a 
piece of special grade tool steel, even if the carbon 
content of each is exactly the same and general 
analysis very close in both grades. The real differ- 
ence in the two steels mentioned is in the method 
of manufacture. This is governed by such factors 
as the kind of raw material used, the method of 
melting and casting, the amount of steel cut off the 
end of the original ingot, the amount of rolling or 
hammering done and the care used in annealing and 
inspecting the finished bars. 

A mild steel bar is in the majority of cases used 
just as it is received from the mill. If, therefore, it 
satisfactorily passes mill inspection for size and 
freedom from surface defects it will generally be 
satisfactory to the ultimate consumer. Tool steel, 
on the other hand, as received from the mill has 
only started its journey, and it may be said that its 

[12] 




ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

manufacture is not completed until it has passed 
through its final process, which consists of heat 
treatment or hardening. 

Inasmuch as practically all of the alloy steel 
purchased is subject to heat treatment before use, 
it would therefore seem 
that alloy steels, like tool 
steels, cannot be judged 
entirely by their analysis. 
It is well known to alloy 
steel manufacturers that 
the ability of these steels 
to withstand the severe 
stresses put upon them by heat treatment depends 
not only on their analysis or composition, but also 
on the various processes through which they have 
passed during the period of manufacture at the mill. 

For these reasons it should be clearly remembered 
that in purchasing alloy steels the reliability and 
reputation of the manufacturer should be given 
full consideration. The element of original cost 
must not be overlooked in order to secure econom- 
ical production; but it is equally important to 
remember that each finished part represents just so 
much money spent for machine work and heat treat- 
ing, and in most cases a cent or a fraction of a cent 
per pound in the initial cost is a very small factor 
when compared with the money expended on 
machine work, heat treating, freight, and other 
elements of the total cost. 



[13] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 




Casting. Molten steel being poured from ladle into molds. 

[14] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



CHAPTER II 

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE 

ALLOY steels are being manufactured by the 
/\ following processes : 

Crucible Process. 

Open Hearth Process. 

Electric Furnace Process. 
The crucible process, owing to extreme cost, is not 
used for heavy tonnage production, and need not 
be considered by the average manufacturer, it being 
impossible to produce a strictly crucible melted alloy 
steel at a price sufficiently low to enable the user to 
compete with others who are using steel made by 
one of the other methods. 

A discussion of the relative merits of the open 
hearth process and electric furnace process would 
cover far more space than is permitted in this book 
and would also of necessity be extremely technical. 
Steel of the very best quality can be made by 
either the electric furnace or the open hearth process, 
and it is perhaps safe to assume that the ultimate 
quality depends more on the selection of raw material, 
care used in manufacturing, and knowledge and 
experience of the maker rather than the particular 
method which he follows in making the steel. 

After all, the best solution of this problem for the 
average shop is to buy material from an entirely 
reliable source of supply, specifying the purpose for 
which the material is to be used and leaving it to the 
sellers to furnish steel in which they have confidence 
and on which they are willing to stake their reputa- 
tion. 

[15] 



R Y E R S O N 



CHAPTER III 

ELEMENTS, AND THE PART THEY PLAY 



IN this chapter we will endeavor briefly to outline 
the various properties imparted to steel by the 
addition of the most commonly used metals, 
such as nickel, chromium and vanadium, also the 
effect of the presence of carbon, manganese, silicon, 
phosphorus, and sulphur. 

Carbon 
One of the most important elements in any steel 
is carbon. The effect not only makes itself apparent 
in the steel itself and the results obtained from its 
use, but is also of primary importance in the deter- 
mination of the correct heat treatment. 

In straight carbon steels, that is, steels composed 
of iron, carbon, and small percentages of such ele- 
ments as manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and 
sulphur, the varying amounts of carbon produce 
steels which may be roughly listed as follows : 

Dead soft steel, carbon not over 0.10 per cent. 
Mild steel, carbon not over 0.25 per cent. 
Machinery steel, carbon 0.25 to 0.40 per cent. 
Crucible machinery steel (not necessarily a 
crucible product), carbon 0.40 to 0.60 per 
cent. 
Low carbon tool steel, carbon 0.60 to 0.75 
per cent. 
Carbon over 0.75 per cent is used in various grades 
of tool steel, sometimes running as high as 2 per 
cent. The most common range of carbon in tool 
steel is 0.75 per cent to 1.20 per cent. 

[16] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

From these figures it will be readily understood 
that the greater the amount of carbon used in steel 
the harder the steel becomes. This is true for steel 
either in the annealed condition, the natural or 
untreated condition, or the heat treated or tempered 
condition. 

Straight carbon steel which is cooled rapidly from 
above its critical point No. 1 (this term is explained 
on page 43) begins to show an increased hardness 
when the carbon content is over 0.25 per cent. The 
amount of hardening, while increasing with greater 
carbon content, does not tend to produce any great 
degree of brittleness until the carbon content has 
reached about 0.50 per cent. 

When steel containing more than about 0.50 per 
cent carbon is suddenly cooled from above its 
critical temperature, it becomes intensely hard and 
also develops extreme brittleness. Therefore, for 
the great majority of purposes, alloy steels do not 
contain much more than about 0.45 per cent carbon. 
The reason for this is that alloy steels are principally 
used where great strength, toughness, and freedom 
from brittleness are required. 

Phosphokus 

In practically all steels the presence of phos- 
phorus may be considered a detrimental impurity. 
The great danger of high phosphorus content is that 
it renders a steel liable to fracture when subjected to 
intense vibration or sudden shock. High phos- 
phorus does not seem to give any particular trouble 
during the course of manufacture, and high phos- 
phorus steel can be successfully worked as long as it 
is at a relatively high temperature. 

From this explanation it is obvious that alloy steels 
must not contain excessive phosphorus. The gen- 
erally accepted maximum limit is in the neighbor- 
hood of 0.04 per cent for commercial alloy steels. 

[17] 



J O S E P H 



K Y E R 8 O N 



In good tool steel 0.025 per cent is about the per- 
missible maximum. 

Sulphur 
Sulphur may be considered an undesirable 
impurity in all steels, but its effect is more or less the 
opposite of that produced by phosphorus, inasmuch 
as steel containing excessive sulphur develops 
cracks, flaws and weaknesses when worked hot. 
The detrimental effect is nevertheless present in cold 
steel, and for this reason it is not usual to permit a 
percentage of sulphur exceeding .045 per cent. 

Manganese 

Manganese is present in all steels, and, when 
added in relatively large proportions, produces a 
special steel with properties entirely different from 
those of any other known analysis. This steel is 
known as manganese steel and may contain as much 
as 14 per cent to 15 per cent of manganese. 

Manganese steels are not in the class of material 
to which this book particularly refers, and no 
further mention will, therefore, be made of them. 

When present in small quantities such as 0.25 per 
cent to 0.80 per cent, manganese serves as a cleanser 
or purifier of the steel. This action is brought 
about by the manganese forming a chemical union 
with the dissolved oxygen which is present in the 
steel, thus forming an oxide of manganese which is 
carried off in the slag. It has also been found that 
in steels where the phosphorus and sulphur might 
tend to produce a rather coarse grain the presence 
of manganese tends to reduce this grain to a more 
normal and desirable size. 

Silicon 
When present in small quantities silicon has very 
much the same effect as similar percentages of 

[18] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

manganese. When present in larger quantities 
silicon, like manganese, produces steels of unique 
characteristics, the principal among these being the 
effect on the magnetic properties of the steel. 

Chromium 

This is, perhaps, one of the most important ele- 
ments to be considered from the standpoint of alloy 
steels, and it is used in the production of many 
classes of material, among which may be mentioned 
high speed steels, certain grades of water hardening 
tool steels, hot working die steels, ball and roller 
bearing steels, chrome nickel steels, chrome vana- 
dium steels, etc. 

Chromium has in general the effect of producing 
hardness in properly treated steels, and when added 
in the correct proportions and in suitable relation to 
the balance of the analysis, takes the place of a 
certain portion of the carbon in producing a harden- 
ing and strengthening effect. 

The amounts of chromium used in different classes 
of steel vary widely, although the following list will 
give an approximate idea of the more generally 
accepted percentages : 

Kind of Steel Percentage of Chromium. 

Chrome Nickel Steels 0.35 to 1 .25 

Ball and Roller Bearing Steels . 80 to 1 . 25 

Hot Working Die Steels 3 .00 to 4.50 

Chrome Vanadium Steels . 75 to 1 . 25 

Certain Water Hardening Tool Steels . . . 20 to . 50 

High Speed Steel .3.00 to 5.00 

The presence of chromium having, as before men- 
tioned, a somewhat similar effect to carbon in pro- 
ducing hardness under heat treatment, it is very 
essential that the percentage of chromium be known 
and given full consideration when any heat treat- 
ment formula is being developed. 

[19] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

Chromium increases the susceptibility of steel to 
heat treatment, and it also has the property of 
carrying the hardness produced by quenching to a 
greater depth so that steels of a fairly high chro- 
mium content after quenching will, in medium sized 
sections, be found to have hardened all the way 
through to the center. When present in rather large 
proportions, such as are found in hot working steels, 
chromium enables the steel to retain its hardness 
at relatively high temperatures, and it is this prop- 
erty that makes these steels particularly suitable 
for gripper dies and other work where the steel will 
be used at high temperatures and must still retain 
a reasonable degree of hardness. 

Nickel 

Nickel is the best known of all the elements used 
in the manufacture of alloy steels. Nickel steel was 
one of the first alloy steels generally used and still 
continues to be extremely popular. 

Various percentages of nickel have been tried, and 
it has been found that for general all round work 
about 33^ per cent nickel seems to give the best 
results, both in the way of producing a high tensile 
strength and elastic limit and at the same time 
leaving the steel ductile and tough. 

The presence of nickel may be said to increase the 
toughness and strength of the steel and also to 
increase its resistance to sudden shock and excessive 
vibration. Steels containing nickel respond very 
readily to heat treatment, so much so that a bar of 
3}4 per cent nickel steel containing 0.40 carbon will 
have an elastic limit of about 60,000 pounds per 
square inch in the annealed condition and about 
200,000 pounds per square inch in the maximum 
heat treated condition. 



[20] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



CHAPTER IV 

HOW TO BUY AND SELECT 
ALLOY STEELS 



PERHAPS one of the most difficult problems 
that must be solved by the user of alloy steels 
is the selection of a suitable grade to use for a 
certain piece of work. 

A study of the table on page 22 (Table A) will 
show that somewhat similar physical characteristics 
may be obtained from the use of any one of the sev- 
eral commercial grades of alloy steel mentioned, and 
the user will, therefore, perhaps, be at a loss to de- 
cide which class of steel to select. For this reason 
we call attention to the following. 

There are many elements which must be taken 
into consideration besides the actual physical prop- 
erties which may be obtained from any one grade of 
steel. Among these may be mentioned availability, 
cost, machine qualities, equipment necessary for 
heat treatment, and past experience of the user in 
handling the steel selected. 

The largest warehouse tonnages of alloy steel are 
confined to the chrome nickel steels, containing 
about 1 to 1.5 per cent nickel and .40 to .75 per cent 
chromium, and the 3^ per cent nickel steels (car- 
bon contents varying in both). 

These two alloy steels are suitable when properly 
heat treated for the manufacture of such parts as 
axles, jack shafts, oil hardened and case hardened 
gears, high duty bolts and nuts, cams, crank shafts, 
connecting rods, and the thousand and one different 

[21] 



JOSEPH 



R Y E R S O N 



parts entering into the manufacture of automobiles, 
trucks, tractors, and other special machines. 

Table A 
Comparative Properties of Alloy Steels 
The following are the approximate physical prop- 
erties which may be obtained from some of the alloy 
steels under ideal conditions of heat treatment. 















of Area 




grade of steel 


Lbs. per sq. 


Per cent of 


Per cent in 
2 inch 




inch 


Original area 


Chrome Nickel 








S. A. E. 3120 








Natural Condition. 


40,000 


65 


30 


Heat Treated 


100,000 


50 


20 


Chrome Nickel 








S. A. E. 3135 








Natural Condition. 


55,000 


50 


20 


Heat Treated 


120,000 


39 


18 


33^2 Percent Nickel 








S. A. E. 2320 








Natural Condition. 


45,000 


55 


30 


Heat Treated 


130,000 


50 


15 


33^ Percent Nickel 








S. A. E. 2340 








Natural Condition. 


60,000 


50 


18 


Heat Treated 


170,000 


45 


15 



The analysis ranges most commonly used in 
chrome nickel and V/2 per cent nickel steels are as 
follows : 

Low Carbon Chrome Nickel Steel 
(S. A. E. Specification 3120) 

Carbon 0. 15 to 0.25 

Nickel 1.00 to 1.50 

Chromium 0.40 to 0.75 

Manganese . 50 to . 80 

Phosphorus maximum . 04 

Sulphur maximum . 045 

[22] 



alloy steel in stock 

High Carbon Chrome Nickel Steel 
(S. A. E. Specification 3135) 

Carbon 0.30 to 0.40 

Nickel 1 . 00 to 1 . 50 

Chromium 0.40 to 0.75 

Manganese 0.50 to 0.80 

Phosphorus maximum . 04 

Sulphur maximum . 045 

Low Carbon 33^ Per Cent Nickel Steel 
(S. A. E. Specification 2320) 

Carbon 0.15 to 0.25 

Manganese 0.50 to 0.80 

Phosphorus not over . 04 

Sulphur not over . 045 

Nickel 3.25 to 3.75 

High Carbon 33^ Per Cent Nickel Steel 
(S. A. E. Specification 2340) 

Carbon. 0.35 to 0.45 

Manganese 0.50 to 0.80 

Phosphorus not over . 04 

Sulphur not over . 045 

Nickel 3.25 to 3.75 

These steels are available from stock in practically 
all sizes from Y% mcn to 6 inches round with a hot 
rolled finish, and can also be secured in many sizes 
with a cold drawn finish. The S. A. E. 2320 and 
3120 analyses steels are also carried in cold drawn 
hexagons for the manufacture of high duty hexagon 
head bolts and hexagon nuts. 

This data is given in connection with the use of 
the previously mentioned four standard grades of 
alloy steel, owing to the fact that these can readily 
be secured from stock sources in large and small 
quantities. 

[23] 



E P H 



R Y E R S O N 



It is not always possible to obtain the size or 
quantity of steel needed in the particular analysis 
desired, and we therefore attach a possible substi- 
tution list. A study of this list will show that where 
a certain analysis is specified one or more of the 
other alloy steels can probably be used in its place 
with satisfactory results. It must not, of course, 
be taken for granted that this will hold true in each 
and every case, and where a doubt exists the matter 
should be referred to some authority on the subject. 
In using the substitution list it is of the utmost 
importance that the heat treatment of the substitute 
steel be carefully considered, inasmuch 
as in all probability it will not be the same 
as the treatment of the 
originally specified analysis. 




ALLOY 



STEEL IN 

Substitution List 



stock 



Steel Specified 
S. A. E. No. 


Possible Substitution 
S. A. E. No. 


3120 


2320 




6120 








3130 


2320 
2330 
2335 


3120 
3135 
3140 


6120 
6125 
6130 


3135 


2330 
2335 
2340 


3130 
,3140 


6125 
6130 
6135 








3140 


2330 
2335 
2340 


3135 


6130 
6135 














2320 




3120 


6120 








2330 


2320 
2335 
2340 


3130 
3140 


6125 
6130 
6135 








2335 


2330 
2340 


3135 
3140 


6125 
6130 
6135 










2340 


2330 
2335 


3135 
3140 


6130 
6135 


6120 


2320 


3120 








6125 


2330 
2335 


3130 
3140 


6120 
6130 


6130 


2330 
2335 
2340 


3130 
3135 
3140 


6125 
6135 






6135 


2335 
2340 


3135 
3140 


6130 







It must be clearly remembered that in selecting 
an alloy steel for any special purpose the physical 
properties of the steel in its heat treated condition 
must determine its use. Alloy steels in the untreated 
or natural condition undoubtedly have advantages 
over the non-alloy steels, but the advantages are not 
sufficient to warrant the increased cost. Another 
factor in this matter is that no reliance can be placed 
on the physical properties of untreated alloy steels. 



[25] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

These physical properties will vary widely in bars of 
different sizes and also in different bars of the same 
size. This condition depends upon the amount of 
work which has been done on the steel at the mill and 
also largely on the final temperature of rolling. 

The most readily procured alloy steels may be 
roughly divided into two classes, the first being of 
low carbon content and the second of relatively high 
carbon content. These two classes are naturally 
used for widely divergent purposes. In order to 
assist the prospective user we will endeavor to give 
a brief outline of the general application of the two 
classes of material. 

Low Carbon Alloy Steels 
The low carbon alloy steels, such as chrome nickel 
(S. A. E. 3120) and 3^ per cent nickel (S. A. E. 
2320) with a carbon range of from .15 to .25 per cent, 
are used primarily for parts which are to be case 
hardened. They are also used for certain struc- 
tural purposes such as spring clips, bolts, and other 
parts which will be subjected to frequently alter- 
nating stresses and intense vibration. When prop- 
erly heat treated these low carbon steels, though 
not developing a very high tensile and elastic limit, 
show a very fine fibrous structure and one having 
consequently great resistance to fatigue, or what is 
commonly but erroneously known as crystallization. 
Owing to the ability of these low carbon steels to 
stand relatively high temperatures without deteri- 
oration, they are particularly suitable for drop 
forging. 

High Carbon Alloy Steels 
The most popular and generally used high carbon 
alloy steels have a carbon range of from .30 to .45 
per cent carbon, and can readily be obtained in 
either chrome nickel (S. A. E. 3135) or 33^ per cent 
nickel (S. A. E. 2340) grades. 

[26] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

These higher carbon steels are used in the most 
part for structural purposes where relatively high 
elastic limits coupled with a reasonable degree of 
toughness are required. 

The physical properties obtainable by heat treat- 
ment of high carbon alloys render them suitable for 
the manufacture of such parts as crank shafts, con- 
necting rods, counter shafts, rocker arms, gears, 
keys, and in fact all parts where high physical prop- 
erties are necessary. 

It has been found very advantageous to use some 
of these alloy steels in the manufacture of certain 
parts of machine tools such as lathe spindles, milling 
machine spindles, and other parts where the least 
amount of bending under severe stress would render 
the tool entirely useless. By the use of these high 
grade steels the weight of many machines can be 
materially lowered without in any way impairing 
their efficiency or reducing their load capacity. 

The higher carbon alloys can be successfully drop 
forged, although they cannot with safety be raised 
to as high a temperature as the lower carbon series. 

From the preceding remarks in this chapter the 
reader will have noted that the selection of the cor- 
rect grade of alloy steels presents several more or 
less technical problems, and these problems are sup- 
plementary to the very important question of avail- 
ability. In view of these conditions we believe that 
the most satisfactory method of handling this prob- 
lem will be to take the matter up in detail with some 
reliable source of supply. The sellers of special alloy 
steels naturally have available the services of men 
thoroughly familiar with the various problems of 
alloy steel procurement and use, and, therefore, 
although they do not know all that is to be known, 
they are in a position frequently to give advice 
which will save both time and money for the user. 



[27] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON 



CHAPTER V 

SHOP EQUIPMENT 

ONE of the most important elements to be con- 
sidered when undertaking any heat treating 
operation is the matter of shop equipment. 
Primarily heat treatment consists of subjecting 
the parts to definite temperature 
increases over and above the 
normal atmospheric tempera- 
tures during certain periods of 
time, and also subjecting parts 
to decreases in temperature from 
various definite points to the 
normal atmospheric tempera- 
ture, also during certain time 
intervals. 

It will be readily understood 
that in order to adequately 
, handle this work there are three 
Furnace. essentials to be considered : 

First, some device whereby the temperature of the 
part may be increased to a certain point and 
maintained for any desired length of time at that 
temperature. 
Second, some device whereby the temperature of a 
piece may be reduced from one point to another 
at any desired rate. 
Third, some means for definitely measuring the 
various high and low temperatures which are used 
in this work. 




[28] 



ALLOY 



T E E L 



T O C K 



CHAPTER VI 

FURNACES 



THE device referred to as the first essential may 
be one of the numerous gas, oil, or coal fired 
furnaces which are on the market, or may con- 
sist of a molten lead, molten salt, or oil bath. The 
question of furnace design is too large a subject to 
be handled in this book, so it will suffice to say that 
money spent in procuring a first class furnace is well 
invested. The selection of such a furnace should be 
undertaken in conjunction with the service depart- 
ments of one of the reputable furnace manufac- 
turers. The question of the design is, of course, 
dependent upon such factors as the fuel most 
readily obtainable, the size 
of work to be handled, 
temperatures required, and 
other shop factors. The 
same remarks will also 
apply in the matter of the 
selection of apparatus using 
molten salt, molten lead, or 
hot oil for heating. 

In general the following 
items should be considered 
in furnace selection: The 
size will, of course, depend 
entirely on the class of work 
to be done, and, while the furnace must be of suffi- 
cient proportions to accommodate the largest pieces 
which are to be heat treated, it must be remembered 
that small pieces can not.be heated economically in 




Double Chamber Heating 
Furnace. 



[29] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

a large furnace. It is also well to note that the 
greatest economy in furnace operation is obtained 
when it is run at a more or less uniform temperature. 
Every time the furnace is heated through a certain 
temperature range the furnace itself absorbs a large 
amount of heat, and consequently when the furnace 
is again cooled this heat is lost and will have done 
no useful work in the heat treatment process. In 
many cases this alternate raising and lowering of the 
furnace temperature is unavoidable, but the matter 
is worthy of consideration inasmuch as frequently 
the loss occasioned by this condition may be elimi- 
nated by the use of two or more furnaces which are 
maintained at different but uniform temperatures. 

Molten Lead, Salt, and Oil Baths 
molten lead baths 

For certain work the molten lead or molten salt 
bath is a very desirable method of raising tem- 
peratures. The steel is protected from contact with 
furnace gases which, if not properly balanced or 
proportioned, may cause excessive oxidization. A 
strong point in its favor is that it will hold a very 
accurate temperature. Owing to the high specific 
gravity of molten lead, steel will float in it and must, 
therefore, be held down. 

It is very important that the lead used be free 
from impurities, this applying particularly to sulphur 
which, if present in the bath, may be absorbed to a 
certain extent by the steel. The lead bath when 
dirty can be cleaned by throwing in perfectly dry 
sodium chloride (common salt) and stirring, inas- 
much as this will bring all dirt to the surface where 
it may readily be removed. 

Where it is found that the lead adheres to the 
surface of the pieces of steel, the difficulty can be 
overcome by dipping the pieces in a saturated water 

[30] 



A L L O V 



STOCK 



solution of potassium cyanide prior to heat treat- 
ment. The pieces must be dipped cold, and the 
solution allowed to dry on the surface before they 
are placed in the lead bath. 

Heating in lead has no influence on the quenching 
temperature of quenching medium, and steel after 
it is removed from the lead bath is handled exactly 
the same as if it has been heated in a furnace or by 
some other method. 

Molten lead baths may be used conveniently for 
temperatures from about 700° Fahr. to 1600° Fahr. 

MOLTEN SALT BATHS 

In some particular instances molten salts, such 
as barium chloride, cyanide of potassium, mixtures 
of calcium chloride and sodium chloride, and various 
other mixtures seem to give very satisfactory results. 
The molten salts, however, frequently give con- 
siderable trouble by having a chemical effect upon 
the surface of the steel. It is well known that cy- 
anide of potassium, for instance, will raise the carbon 
content of the surface of the steel to a very high 
point, and, although this penetration is not deep 
this method is frequently used as a quick and easy 
means of case hardening. Other 
salts cause erosion and pitting 
under some conditions; and, 
therefore, owing to the many 
problems that arise in connec- 
tion with molten salt baths, we 
do not particularly recommend 
their use. 

OIL BATHS 

Oil is one of the most useful 
mediums for the heat treater. 
It is employed both as a heating 
and cooling medium. At present 
we will consider oil only from 




[31] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

the standpoint of heating, wherein it may be used 
for temperatures up to and including about 600° 
Fahr. This temperature, of course, does not have 
any material effect on untreated or annealed steel, 
but is used to relieve the internal strains brought on 
by quenching from higher temperatures and to 
change the physical properties of heat treated steel. 
For this purpose an oil bath is extremely desirable 
owing to the fact that a steady uniform temperature 
can be maintained for any desired length of time. 
This is an extremely difficult operation to carry out 
in a furnace when using such low heats. 



[32] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



CHAPTEK VII 

QUENCHING EQUIPMENT 

WE will now consider the matter of temperature 
reduction, which is listed in Chapter V under 
the heading of essential No. 2. 
In heat treatment temperature reduction is the 
second operation and follows the initial heating of 
the parts which are going through the process. 

Various mediums are available for this heat reduc- 
tion or quenching, such as oil, water, brine, ashes, 
slack lime, air, etc. Note that, in addition to the 
large number of different quenching mediums used, 
these various mediums are used at different tempera- 
tures, all this depending upon the degree of cooling 
desired and also the time element or rate of cooling 
necessary to give the desired result. 

The physical properties of heat treated steel 
depend primarily on five factors: 
First, the analysis of the steel. 
Second, the size of the piece under consideration. 
Third, the temperature at the time when the tem- 
perature reduction starts. 
Fourth, the rate at which the temperature reduction 

takes place. 
Fifth, the temperature of the final heating or drawing. 
Oil and water are probably the most generally 
used mediums for temperature reduction or quench- 
ing, and in the great majority of cases these two 
mediums are used as nearly as possible at normal 
atmospheric temperature. In order to secure 
uniform results it is necessary that the temperature 
of the quenching bath be kept as nearly constant as 

[33] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

possible. Because repeated quenchings will raise 
the temperature of the quenching medium, these 
baths, except where used for very intermittent 
service, are provided with cooling coils through 
which cold water is circulated. Sometimes this 
cooling system is modified, and the oil is pumped 
from the tank through an exterior coil which is 
surrounded by cold, circulating water. 

Addition of salt to water increases the specific 
heat of the solution, and therefore produces a more 
rapid cooling of the parts which are quenched in it. 
However, care must be used to always maintain 
about the same proportion of salt in the bath or a 
non-uniform quenching will result. 

With certain steels, and where certain physical 
properties are required, the atmosphere will form 
a desirable quenching medium, in which case pieces 
are merely removed from the heating furnace and 
allowed to cool in the air. This is naturally a slow 
medium of cooling, and physical properties thus 
obtained are consequently lower than those given 
by the same steel when quenched from the same 
temperature in such mediums as oil or water. 

The whole problem of quenching mediums, 
designs of quenching tanks, and other shop details 
are of too broad a scope to be taken up in detail in 
this book, and should be included in a general 
scheme of shop equipment at the time the furnace 
installation is determined. The following general 
remarks may, however, be useful. 

Be sure that you provide means of keeping your 
quenching bath at constant temperature. This 
factor is governed by: 
First, the weight of steel being quenched in a given 

time. 
Second, the temperature of steel at time of quenching. 
Third, the quantity of quenching medium provided. 

[34] 



ALLOY 



T E E L 



STOCK 



Fourth, the efficiency of system used to cool the 

quenching medium. 

It will be well to emphasize the need of a very 
quick transfer of the hot steel from the furnace to 
the oil quenching tank. As soon as the steel is 
taken from the furnace it starts to lose heat, and 
even if the temperature of the steel while in the 
furnace is correct it will have dropped too low if 
much time is lost in making the transfer to the 
quenching tank. For this reason the quenching 
tanks should be as near the furnaces as possible. 




Plate mill, consisting of top and bottom rolls. Plates rolled on these mills 
are irregular on the edges and must be sheared on all four sides. 



[35] 



T. RYERSON 



CHAPTER VIII 

HEAT MEASUREMENT 

THE matter of heat measurement has already 
been given as the third essential in shop 
equipment for heat treating, and, while this 
matter has been taken up as the third element, it 
must not be considered as being third in importance. 

Granted the use of good steel and high class 
equipment for heating and quenching, neither 
accurate nor dependable results can be obtained 
unless the operator has a means of determining 
accurately the temperatures of the various furnaces, 
lead baths, oil baths, etc. 

Temperatures up to 600° Fahr. can be accurately 
measured by the use of high temperature mercurial 
thermometers, but where the temperatures used are 
in excess of this figure it becomes necessary to use 
some other means of determination. 

There are two methods in common use of measur- 
ing the higher temperatures: (1) by the optical 
pyrometer, and (2), the thermoelectric couple. 

The optical pyrometer has its application and is 
useful in many cases, but for numerous reasons the 
thermoelectric apparatus is generally used. 

Very briefly, the principle of the thermoelectric 
couple is as follows: When two pieces of metal of 
different composition are joined together at both 
ends so as to form a complete electric circuit, a flow 
of current is produced when the two junctions or 
joints are at different temperatures. 

Provided that the wires are of exactly uniform 
composition throughout, the difference in electro- 

[36] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

motive force, or voltage, is directly proportional to 
the increase in temperature, and therefore, if a very 
delicate voltmeter or galvanometer be placed in the 
circuit, a reading can be obtained which will indicate 
the difference in temperature of the two junctions. 

Selection of pyrometer equipment must be 
governed by such factors as the permissible original 
cost and also shop conditions and kind of work 
which will be undertaken. These several matters 
having been determined, the pyrometer equipment 
installation should be turned over to one of the 
recognized and dependable pyrometer manufac- 
turers, all details being left to their experience and 
co-operation. 

In connection with this matter, it may be well to 
emphasize the desirability of recording pyrometers. 
These instruments are provided with a moving 
chart, on which a line is automatically drawn 
representing the furnace temperature at all times. 
Such a recorder can be kept in a locked box, thereby 
providing evidence as to just how accurately the 
furnace operator has followed his instructions in 
reference to temperature and time. 

Whatever system is installed, it must be remem- 
bered that the pyrometer is essentially a delicate 
instrument, and the voltages and currents handled 
are necessarily extremely small. For these reasons 
it is essential that the couples be properly protected 
from furnace gas action and that they be handled 
with care. All contacts must be kept scrupulously 
clean and the indicating and recording instruments 
so placed that they are free from excessive vibration 
and jar, such as may be produced by steam hammers 
or other heavy machines. Pyrometers must be 
accurately checked at fairly frequent intervals, this 
being best handled by the service departments of 
the various pyrometer manufacturers. (See page 73.) 

[37] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

If the pyrometer equipment is given adequate care 
and attention, readings of remarkable accuracy can 
be obtained, but, on the other hand, if not properly 
cared for, inaccuracies are bound to develop and 
trouble with heat treatment will surely follow. 

Heat treated alloy steels are used for the most 
vital parts of automobiles, trucks, aeroplanes, and 
other fast moving mechanisms, and the safety of 
human lives depends on their withstanding the 
severe stresses that are imposed upon them. Their 
success in fulfilling their function depends more 
largely on their heat treatment than any other 
factor, and it is, therefore, a duty of all those doing 
heat treatment work to see that this work is properly 
done and that no chances are taken, either with the 
use of inferior material or equipment. 

In using the thermoelectric pyrometer to deter- 
mine the heat of a piece of steel, it is well to place 
the thermo couple near the steel, and by observation 
of the heat color it may be readily seen whether the 
thermo couple and the steel are at the same tem- 
perature. This matter is of importance inasmuch 
as no furnace will be the same temperature at all 
points, and, where the thermo couple is distant from 
the steel, the temperature which it registers may 
not be the actual temperature of the steel being 
heated. 



[38] 



ALLOY 



T O C K 



CHAPTER IX 

HEATING 



IN another section of this book there are tables 
giving the correct quenching temperatures for 
various alloy steels, together with the drawing 
temperatures and the approximate physical prop- 
erties resulting therefrom. In order that these tables 
may prove of the greatest possible value, it will be 
in order to outline briefly the general principles to 
be observed in following the heat treatment formula 
given in these tables, and 
we will therefore first 
consider the matter of 
heating. 

All steels when heated 
are subject to expansion, 
the amount of expansion 
being more or less directly 
proportional to the in- 
crease in temperature . If 
a bar of steel is allowed 
to remain in a furnace 
which is at a certain 

temperature, the Center Tapping Blast Furnace. 

of the bar, or that part of the metal farthest from 
the surface, will ultimately reach approximately the 
same temperature as the furnace. It will be obvious 
from consideration of this matter, however, that the 
heat must pass by conduction from one particle of the 
steel to another, starting at the outside and pene- 
trating inward. A certain amount of time is there- 
fore required for the steel to assume the same 




[39] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

temperature throughout, consequently if the bar is 
placed in an extremely hot furnace, the outside will 
for a while be very much hotter than the inside 
portion. 

The difference in expansion of the outside and 
center of a piece of steel, owing to the difference in 
temperature, is dangerous, and to this cause may 
be frequently attributed the development of cracks 
or checks. This condition is more highly developed 
with some steels than with others on account of the 
difference of density and heat conductivity. High 
speed steels and certain high percentage chromium 
steels are particularly dense, and in such extreme 
cases very rapid heating is almost sure to produce 
disastrous results. On the other hand, low carbon 
steels which contain no alloys, such as mild steel, 
are more free from danger in this respect. 

As a general rule it may be stated that the higher 
the carbon and the greater the percentage of alloys 
in a steel the more care must be used in raising the 
temperature. There are exceptions, of course, to 
this rule, but by taking it as applying to all cases no 
harm will be done and many undesirable results 
may be avoided. 

Heating, therefore, should be done as slowly as is 
commercially possible, and in all cases the steel 
must be allowed to remain in the furnace for a 
sufficient length of time to insure absolutely uniform 
heat penetration throughout all parts of the bars or 
pieces. 

Where a long run of heat treatment is contem- 
plated it is sometimes advantageous to use two or 
more furnaces; furnace number one may be main- 
tained at a comparatively low temperature and used 
solely for the purpose of pre-heating the steel. After 
having reached the temperature of the pre-heating 
furnace, the pieces can then be transferred to the 
higher temperature furnace and brought up to the 

[40] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

ultimate heat which is required. This system will 
give quicker results and avoid the heat loss occa- 
sioned by alternately raising and lowering the tem- 
perature of the furnace itself, as well as insuring a 
gradual rise in temperature of the parts which are 
being heat treated. 

Furnace atmosphere is of the utmost importance, 
and great care should be used in properly propor- 
tioning the relative amounts of fuel and air. 

Air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen, and 
where an excess of air is mixed with the fuel a sur- 
plus of free oxygen will exist in the furnace atmos- 
phere. Free oxygen, when brought in contact with 
heated steel, will combine chemically with the iron 
contained in the steel, forming iron oxide or scale. 
Oxygen will also combine readily with the carbon 
in steel and will thus change the carbon percentage 
in the outside surface of the bar. Scaling and de- 
carbonizing are, of course, both undesirable and can 
be practically eliminated by properly proportioning 
the mixture of fuel and air so that there will be 
sufficient fuel to use up all the oxygen which is 
being fed into the furnace. 

The necessity of using a slight excess of fuel has 
already been indicated, but this action must not be 
carried too far. Where large amounts of excess fuel 
are used no advantage is gained and waste will occur. 



[41] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & 




142] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



CHAPTER X 

COOLING OR QUENCHING 

HAVING in the previous chapter considered 
the matter of raising the temperature of steel 
for heat treatment, we will now touch on the 
matter of temperature reduction, more commonly 
called quenching. The matter of heat reduction for 
the purpose of annealing will be considered in another 
chapter. 

When steels are heated to a certain temperature, 
which will be different in every grade and analysis 
of steel, certain changes take place in the metal. 
These changes are of physical and chemical nature, 
and the point at which the change occurs is known 
as the " critical temperature" or "critical range" of 
the particular steel in question. The nature of these 
changes is known and very ably discussed by many 
authors of technical books on the subject of metal- 
lurgy. It is not within the scope of this book to go 
into these technicalities, and we will therefore con- 
tent ourselves with accepting the fact that such a 
point of change actually does exist. 

When steel is heated above the critical tempera- 
ture, the changes so caused are such that, if they 
can be retained in the steel after cooling, the physical 
properties of the steel will be entirely different from 
those of the same steel prior to the change having 
taken place. When the temperature of a piece of 
steel is raised to a point slightly above the critical 
temperature, the changes do not occur instantane- 
ously y a certain amount of time being necessary 
for this action. On cooling a piece of steel from a 

[43] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

temperature above the critical point (we will call 
this critical point No. 1), providing that the cooling 
is done slowly, the changes which have occurred 
will reverse themselves and the steel will return to 
its original condition. The temperature at which 
the return to original condition starts is lower than 
the No. 1 critical point and this point may be, for 
convenience, called critical temperature No. 2. 

In considering a decreasing temperature and the 
change which the steel undergoes during such 
decreases, the time element is of the utmost impor- 
tance, inasmuch as the changes occur not instan- 
taneously but over a certain period of time. 

The whole operation of heat treating, therefore, 
depends upon the following facts: 
First, that steel undergoes a change when heated 

above a certain point. 
Second, that such change will be reversed on suffi- 
ciently slow cooling, thus returning the steel to its 
original condition. 
Third, that the changes can not occur instantane- 
ously. 
Fourth, that the physical properties of the steel will 
be different provided the changes which took place 
on heating can be retained in the steel when in a 
cold or normal temperature condition. 
Owing to the fact that time is required for the 
changes to occur on a falling temperature, we can, 
by heating steel above the critical point No. 1 and 
cooling it quickly by quenching in water, oil, or 
some other medium, to a certain extent prevent the 
return of the steel to its previous condition. 

It is not possible to entirely prevent the return 
of the steel to its previous or natural condition. 
From a practical standpoint the more we do to 
prevent the return of the steel to the natural con- 
dition the harder and stronger it will be; therefore, 

[44] 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



STOCK 



it will be obvious that the final physical properties 
of the steel will depend on the rate of cooling. 

Different rates of cooling may be obtained by 
using different cooling mediums, and also by holding 
these various cooling mediums at different tempera- 
tures. The above remarks make it clear that it is 
very necessary to maintain the quenching bath at a 
uniform temperature if uniform results are to be 
obtained. 

It will now be obvious to the reader why the 
matter of size of the pieces being heat treated has 
such an important bearing on the final result. It is, 
of course, physically impossible to cool a 6 inch 
round bar as rapidly as can be done in the case of 
a 1 inch round bar. The great difference in the 
final physical properties produced by the different 
rate of cooling is clearly shown in Table B. 



Table B 

Effect of Size on Results of Heat 

Treatment 



SIZE 


Tensile 
Strength 

Lbs. per sq. 
Inch 


Elastic 
Limit 

Lbs. per sq. 
Inch 


Extension 

Per cent in 
2 Inch 


Contract- 
ing Area 
Per cent of 
original 
area 


1-in. Rd. 


138,500 


106,000 


18.80 


60 


2-in. Rd. 


125,000 


95,000 


19.00 


58 


3-in. Rd. 


112,000 


84,000 


19.50 


56 


4-in. Rd. 


107,000 


70,000 


19.00 


54 


5-in. Rd. 


105,000 


69,000 


18.90 


54 


6-in. Rd. 


9S,000 


68,500 


19.00 


49 



These tests were made on steel of exactly the same composition 
and the heat treatment given was identical in regard to quench- 
ing and drawing temperatures, the difference being in the time 
required to cool the pieces through a certain temperature range. 
This illustrates very clearly the fact that the result of heat treat- 
ment depends on the Rate of Cooling, all other factors such as anal- 
ysis, quenching temperature, and final temperature being equal. 

[45] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

It is not very practical to work out a definite 
chart indicating the probable effect of size in heat 
treating, and this matter must, therefore, be deter- 
mined by experience and by actual test. 

Cleanliness is of importance in heat treating as 
well as all other manufacturing operations, and is 
particularly important in reference to quenching 
baths and tanks. Where oil is used, it should be 
clean, and it must be remembered that it will not 
last indefinitely. The effect of the high tempera- 
tures on quenching oils will in time change their 
specific heat or cooling ability; and this matter 
must, therefore, be watched with care. 

Arrangements must be made to keep the cooling 
solutions agitated, as otherwise the parts being 
treated will raise the temperature of the cooling 
medium in their immediate neighborhood to a high 
degree, thus cutting down the cooling effect. 

Oils may be agitated by pump circulation which 
carries the oil from the tank out through cooling 
colis and then back to the tank, or the piece may be 
kept in motion until it has lost most of its heat. 

When water is used as a cooling medium, the 
agitation problem is not quite so hard to handle 
inasmuch as fresh water can be constantly added to 
the bath, and owing to the low cost the loss thus 
occasioned will not be serious. 

The quenching tanks should be placed close to 
the furnaces, inasmuch as after being removed from 
the furnace the hot steel must reach the quenching 
medium with the least possible delay. 

Where the pieces are light the quickest and most 
efficient cooling can be accomplished by having a 
heavy wire screen placed well down in the cooling 
medium on which the pieces can rest. The screen 
will allow the quenching medium to circulate freely 
and the pieces will be cooled much more rapidly 
than if they were resting on the bottom of the tank. 

[46] 



ALLOY 



STOCK 



With heavy parts such as long bars, some mechan- 
ical arrangement for suspension in the liquid quench- 
ing medium should be made, so that either the bars 
or the bath can be kept moving constantly. 

In quenching do not allow the pieces to rest on 
the bottom of the tank, because when this is done 
the upper part of the piece will be cooled much more 
rapidly than the lower part and uneven results and 
possible warping will occur. 




Oil Quenching Tank with cooling unit located outside of building. 

Note this system is equipped with water spray pipe for use 

when necessary to increase the cooling effect. 



[47] 



JOSEPH 



R Y E R S O N 



CHAPTER XI 

DRAWING 



DRAWING is a term used to designate a re- 
heating of steel that has been heated and 
quenched. When steel is quenched from 
above the critical temperature No. 1, it is usually 
too hard and does not possess the necessary tough- 
ness for most purposes. For this reason the draw- 
ing or reheating process is necessary. 

We have already shown that by heating steel 
above critical temperature No. 1 and cooling rapidly 
by quenching we retain in the steel certain proper- 
ties induced by heating, owing to the fact that we 
have not given the steel sufficient time during the 
cooling process to return to its original condition. 
Considering a piece of steel as it is removed from 
the quenching bath, we will now understand that 
its physical condition is fixed owing to the fact that 
no change can occur while the steel remains below 
a certain temperature. The tendency of the steel 
is to return to its original condi- 
tion, and each increase of tem- 
perature above a certain point will 
allow the steel to approach more 
closely to its condition prior to the 
heating and quenching operations. 
The temperature at which the 
return to normal condition starts 
will vary with different steels; 
however, in most cases this tem- 
perature will be somewhere between 
Small Helting Furnace. 270° and 300° Fahr. The amount 




[48] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

of change occurring will depend entirely on the tem- 
perature and the time at which the steel is held at 
this temperature. The change increases until the 
temperature has reached the critical point No. 1, 
when the change will be complete and the steel will 
have returned to exactly the same condition as it 
was prior to the initial heating and quenching. The 
drawing should not be carried beyond the critical 
temperature, as if this is done all the work of quench- 
ing and drawing will be wasted and the steel will 
again be in the same condition as it was prior to the 
first quenching. The ability to partially return the 
steel to the normal condition is naturally very 
valuable, inasmuch as it will enable us to produce 
any desired degree of strength, toughness, or hard- 
ness within the range of the particular steel which 
we may be using. The practical application of this 
operation is shown in the tables in another part of 
this book. 

Like all other heating operations, drawing must 
be handled with care and above all with extreme 
accuracy. The hot oil bath gives the most accurate 
method of drawing where the temperatures do not 
exceed 600° Fahr. Molten lead may be successfully 
used for higher temperatures, and in some cases, 
where the furnace control is good and the proper 
care is exercised in their use, furnaces will give 
accurate and dependable drawing. 



[49] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON 



CHAPTER XII 

ANNEALING 



IT will sometimes be desirable to anneal alloy 
steel which may be either in the form of rolled 
or hammered bars or forgings. Such annealing 
may be for the purpose of rendering the steel softer 
so that it may be machined more readily, or it may 
be with the idea of refinement of the granular struc- 
ture where this has been coarsened by the forging 
or rolling operation having been finished at too high 
a temperature. Internal stresses resulting from forg- 
ing or rolling can also be relieved by proper an- 
nealing, and sometimes this operation is very 
desirable. 

The equipment necessary for annealing will be 
similar to that used for other heat treatment work, 
and will consist primarily of a furnace for raising 
temperatures together with some means of lowering 
temperatures slowly. 

In heating steel during the annealing process it is 
important that the furnace gases be so proportioned 
that they do not contain an excess of oxygen. Steel 
during the annealing process is maintained at rel- 
atively high temperatures for a considerable length 
of time, and if, therefore, the furnace atmosphere 
is of an oxidizing nature, considerable decarboniza- 
tion will occur and a heavy scale will be formed as 
well as loss of carbon in the surface. 

We have already pointed out that no change in 
the physical structure of the steel will take place 
unless the steel is heated slightly beyond the critical 
temperature No. 1, and therefore, where grain refine- 

[50 J 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

ment is desired the annealing temperature will be 
above this point. 

We have already shown that the slower the cooling 
from above this critical temperature the greater is 
the opportunity given the structural changes to 
reverse themselves, thus bringing the steel back to 
its normal condition. It will, therefore, be seen 
that annealing consists of raising the temperature 
of the steel to a point above the critical No. 1 and 
then allowing it to cool very slowly. 

From the preceding explanation the reader under- 
stands that the degree of annealing will depend 
upon the selection of the right heating temperature 
and the rate of cooling. This annealing temper- 
ature will, of course, vary for different steels. On 
page 52 of this book will be found a table showing 
the approximate figures to be used. 

As in all other heat treating, time is a factor as 
well as temperature, and after the steel has been 
brought to the proper annealing heat it must be 
held at this temperature for sufficient length of 
time for the necessary changes to take place. The 
time during which steel should be held at the an- 
nealing heat will depend primarily on the size of 
the pieces. No very definite rule can be made, and 
the actual time will vary from a few minutes in some 
cases to several days in others. 

For small forgings, such as automobile engine 
connecting rods and similar parts, about 20 to 30 
minutes at the annealing temperature will be suffi- 
cient to insure heat penetration and completion of 
the structural changes. For a bar 6 inches in diam- 
eter about two or three hours at the full annealing 
heat should insure penetration, although these are 
matters which must be worked out by experiment 
in each particular case. 

Where it is necessary that a part be produced 
having a clean, smooth surface after annealing, it 

[51] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

is usual to pack the parts in some non-active ma- 
terial, such as pulverized ashes or dry slaked lime. 
Other operators prefer to use charcoal or powdered 
anthracite coal; either of these substances will give 
satisfactory results, the pieces, of course, being 
packed in boxes having tight fitting lids or covers 
which will exclude all air. 

i The whole object of packing parts prior to an- 
nealing is to exclude air and thus prevent oxidization 
and decarbonization. 

Where the steel is packed in boxes and surrounded 
by one of the previously mentioned substances, it 
must be borne in mind that the steel will not attain 
the full furnace temperature owing to the fact that 
it is surrounded by poor conductors of heat, and 
this matter must be considered in regulating the 
temperature of the furnace. 

One of the best methods of reducing the tem- 
perature slowly is to leave the pieces in the furnace ; 
shut off the fire and, having closed the doors, close 
up all openings or cracks with clay. When closed 
up tight the furnace will cool very slowly, and if the 
annealing temperature has been correct the anneal- 
ing result will in all probability be entirely sat- 
isfactory. 

ANNEALING TEMPERATURES 

Straight Carbon Steels 

.15 to .25 Carbon 1570° Fahr. 

.25 to .35 Carbon 1550° Fahr. 

.35 to .45 Carbon 1525° Fahr. 

.45 to .55 Carbon 1500° Fahr. 

. 85 to 1 . 10 Carbon (Tool Steel) 1425° Fahr. 

3J/2 Per Cent Nickel Steel 

. 15 to .25 Carbon 1530° Fahr. 

.25 to .35 Carbon 1500° Fahr. 

.35 to .45 Carbon 1450° Fahr. 

[52] 



alloy steel in stock 

Chrome Nickel Steel 
(S. A. E. Specification 3120 to 3140) 

. 15 to .25 Carbon 1600° Fahr. 

.25 to .35 Carbon 1550° Fahr. 

.35 to .45 Carbon 1500° Fahr. 

Where alloy steels have been severely overheated 
and a very coarse structure has thereby been pro- 
duced, the condition can be frequently rectified by 
a double annealing process. This process consists 
of raising the temperature to about 180° Fahr. over 
the normal annealing temperature, cooling quickly 
and following this by the regular annealing, using 
the temperatures given for annealing in the above 
table. The temperatures given for annealing are of 
necessity only approximate and must be considered 
as such. 




Quenching Tank with coil for cold water circulation. 



.53] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON 



CHAPTER XIII 

TESTING HEAT TREATED STEEL 

A FTER we have completed the heat treatment 
/~\ of steel, provided the work has been done 
properly, we should have a very close idea of 
just what results we have obtained. In order to 
check our work, however, it is desirable to submit 
the heat treated parts to certain tests for physical 
properties. Such tests will not only tell us whether 
or not the steel is suitable for the purposes for 
which it is to be used, but it will also serve to in- 
dicate as to whether or not our equipment, such as 
furnaces, quenching baths, pyrometers, etc., have 
been functioning properly. 

The usual tests to which steels are submitted are 
for the purpose of determining the following physical 
properties: Tensile strength in pounds per square 
inch, elastic limit in pounds per square inch, elonga- 
tion (usually as a percentage in 2 inches), and con- 
traction of area. 

The usual method of testing for these physical 
characteristics is to turn down a sample of the steel 
to a known diameter and submit it to a gradually 
increasing pull in one of the standard testing 
machines. The testing machines are so designed 
that the actual stress on the specimen can be read 
at all times, and this stress is increased until the spec- 
imen is fractured, thus giving the desired information. 

Testing machines are large, heavy, and expensive, 
and the services of a thoroughly trained, man are 
necessary in order to successfully operate them. 
Where considerable testing is to be done a machine 

[54] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

is, of course, a necessary investment, but otherwise 
it is more economical to send sample pieces to one 
of the fully equipped commercial testing laboratories 
that handle this work and furnish accurate reports 
of the results obtained. 

It has long been known that a relation exists in 
steel between hardness and tensile strength; and the 
method of determining the approximate tensile 
strength by first determining the hardness may, 
therefore, be used. 

Hardness may be ascertained by one of several 
methods. The most widely used methods are those 
employing the Brinell testing machine and the Shore 
scleroscope. 

The Brinell system consists of exerting a definite 
and known pressure on a hard steel ball of certain 
diameter which rests on the surface of the material 
to be tested. The area of the indentation made by 
the steel ball on the surface of the specimen is 
carefully measured and is used as a basis for figuring 
the so called Brinell hardness of the specimen. The 
Brinell machine is rather expensive, and where 
accurate results are to be obtained it must be used 
with great care. The results are, however, entirely 
reliable within certain hardness ranges. The 
Brinell method does not work very satisfactorily on 
extremely hard steels, owing to the fact that the 
impression will be too small to be measured with 
accuracy, and that the ball instead of penetrating 
the sample will flatten out to a certain extent. 

The Shore scleroscope consists of a glass tube 
and a small piece of extremely hard steel which is 
free to travel up and down the center of the tube. 
The machine is so arranged that the glass tube is 
placed vertically and at right angles to the surface 
of the material to be tested, and the small piece of 
steel is allowed to fall through the tube from a 
certain height. The harder the sample to be tested 

[55] 



JOSEPH T . 



R Y E R S O N 



the higher will the small piece of steel rebound, and 
the amount of this rebound is taken as a measure of 
the hardness of the sample. The scleroscope is per- 
haps the cheapest of all the standard hardness testers, 
and if used with care fairly reliable results may be 
obtained. The scleroscope is particularly useful 
in working on hard material, and it is, therefore, 
used for testing the hardness of tempered tool steel 
dies, the teeth of hardened gears, roller bearing and 
ball bearing surfaces, and other kindred work. 

In the following tables will be found the Brinell 
and scleroscope hardness numbers and the ap- 
proximate corresponding tensile strength in pounds 
per square inch on carbon, chrome nickel, and V/i 
per cent nickel steels. These tables are as nearly 
accurate as possible, but must not be taken as being 
exact. 

Carbon Steel 



Scleroscope 


Brinell 


Tensile Strength in 


Reading 


Reading 


lbs. per sq. inch 


20 


130 


63,000 


30 


195 


108,000 


40 


260 


150,000 


50 


325 


200,000 


60 


390 


250,000 


70 


455 


290,000 


80 


520 


335,000 


90 


585 


390,000 


100 


650 


425,000 



Chrome Nickel Steels 



Scleroscope 


Brinell 


Tensile Strength in 


Reading 


Reading 


lbs. per sq. inch 


20 


141 


74,000 


30 


195 


111,000 


40 


249 


147,000 


50 


303 


183,000 


60 


357 


215,000 


70 


411 


258,000 


80 


465 


292,000 


90 


519 


331,000 


100 


573 


366,000 



[56] 



ALLOY 



T O C K 



3)^ Per Cent Nickel Steels 


Scleroscope 


Brinell 


Tensile Strength in 


Reading 


Reading 


lbs. per sq. inch 


20 


158 


70,000 


30 


213 


100,000 


40 


268 


145,000 


50 


323 


180,000 


60 


378 


225,000 


70 


433 


260,000 


80 


488 


280,000 


90 


543 


320,000 


100 


598 


350,000 



[57] 



JOSEPH T . 



R Y E R S O N 



CHAPTER XIV 

CASE HARDENING OR CARBONIZING 



IT is sometimes desirable to produce a piece of 
steel having an intensely hard exterior or 
surface, intended to resist wear, coupled with 
a tough and strong core or center having considerable 
resistance to shock. 

This result is obtained by what is commonly 
known as case hardening or carbonizing. This 
process consists of taking a comparatively low 
carbon steel, and, after having formed it to the 
desired shape, raising the carbon content on the 
surface to a sufficiently high point so that when 
quenched it will become extremely hard. While 
under certain conditions steel can be made to absorb 
carbon, such absorption or penetration will not 
extend very far beneath the surface; and, therefore, 
when this material is 
quenched the interior, be- 
ing of low carbon content, 
will merely be toughened, 
thus giving an extremely 
hard surface with a tough 
^ and strong supporting core 
or center. 

Various materials under 
certain heat conditions 
will give up some of their carbon to steel, and among 
those commonly used may be mentioned charred 
leather, crushed and charred bone, charcoal, and 
certain gases which contain a large percentage of 
carbon such as carbon monoxide. 




[58] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

In commercial case hardening the pieces to be 
treated are packed in an iron box or container and 
are surrounded with the carbonizing material, which 
may consist of one of the foregoing substances or, 
better, of the numerous prepared carbonizing mix- 
tures that are sold for this purpose. The box is now 
raised to a certain temperature in the furnace and 
held at this temperature for a definite length of time. 
When sufficient carbon penetration has taken place 
the parts are subjected to various heat treatments 
which will be described later. 

The rate of case hardening and the depth of 
penetration are controlled by the following factors: 
First, the class of steel. 
Second, the class of carbonizing mixture. 
Third, the shape of and the material from which the 

box or container is made. 
Fourth, the temperature at which the carbonizing is 

done and the length of time during which this 

temperature is maintained. 

Roughly speaking, the higher the temperature, 
the more rapidly will the carbonizing mixture give 
up its carbon to the steel, but this heat factor is 
governed by the degree of heat which the steel can 
stand without detrimental effect; and, therefore, a 
deep penetration can only be obtained safely by 
using the normal case hardening temperature and 
holding this for a length of time dependent on the 
depth of case required. 

Attention is called to the following points in 
connection with this work. 

Carbonizing Mixtures 

There are many good carbonizing mixtures avail- 
able, all having their good points. However, the 
following features should be considered when 
buying: 

[59] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

First — Should have a good heat conductivity. 

Second — Should be uniform in granular size. 

Third — Must carbonize at a uniform rate. 

Fourth — Must be capable of being used time after 
time in order to be economical. 

Fifth — Should not contain phosphorus or sulphur, 
inasmuch as these may be absorbed by the steel. 

Sixth — Must be of uniform composition through- 
out so that it will give uniform results on all parts 
of the steel being carbonized. 

A very good carbonizing medium can be made by 
mixing the following : 

Barium Carbonate, 2 Parts. 

Wood Charcoal, 3 Parts. 

Both the barium carbonate and charcoal must be 
finely granulated and thoroughly mixed. This mix- 
ture has an advantage in that if spread out and 
exposed to the air, it will "revive," owing to the 
fact that the barium oxide produced during the 
carbonizing process will take up carbon dioxide from 
the air and in this way again become barium 
carbonate; the charcoal must of course be replen- 
ished after it has become depleted by use. 

Case Hardening Boxes 

The boxes used for hardening should be sufficiently 
heavy to withstand the high temperature used for a 
considerable length of time without warping, and 
should be made of material which is a good heat 
conductor. It is important that the boxes be so 
designed that after the pieces are packed in them 
they can be closed so as to exclude all air. Iron pipe 
is satisfactory for small pieces, although cast iron 
boxes are more generally used. Where long runs are 
contemplated it is sometimes economical to use 
boxes made from certain cast alloys. These special 
boxes are advertised in the trade journals and can 
be readily procured. 

[60] 



alloy steel in stock 
Carbonizing Furnaces 

Furnaces for carbonizing should be such that the 
temperature can be accurately controlled over any 
desired period of time, and in this respect they, of 
course, do not differ from furnaces used for other 
heat treating operations. 

Temperature for Case Hardening 

There are so many factors, such as the character 
of the steel, kind of case hardening mixture used, 
the size of the case hardening boxes, depth of pene- 
tration desired, etc., that govern case hardening 
temperature that it is almost impossible to give any 
accurate data on this subject. The following list 
will probably be useful as a general guide on this 
subject, although it must be modified to meet 
special conditions. 

Carbon Steel S. A. E. 1020 
.10 to .25 carbon, 1625° to 1725° Fahr. 

3K Per Cent Nickel Steel S. A. E. 2320 
.15 to .25 carbon, 1600° to 1650° Fahr. 

Chrome Nickel Steel S. A. E. 3120 
.15 to .25 carbon, 1625° to 1700° Fahr. 

Depth of Penetration 

The depth of penetration depends on numerous 
factors which have already been mentioned, and, 
owing to there being so many things that have a 
bearing on this matter, it is hardly practical to 
make any definite statement in regard to depth of 
penetration which may be expected for a given time 
and temperature. As a general guide to what may 
be expected, when working with a straight carbon 

[61] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

steel using the previously mentioned barium car- 
bonate mixture, the accompanying table can be 
referred to, although this is only approximate. 



Approximate Carbon 


Approximate Carbon 


Penetration at 1650°F. 


Penetration at 1775°F. 


Hours 


Depth in Inches 


Hours 


Depth in Inches 


1 


0.030 


1 


0.040 


2 


0.045 


2 


0.050 


3 


0.050 


3 


0.075 


4 


0.060 


4 


0.085 


5 


0.065 


5 


0.098 


6 


0.070 


6 


0.110 


7 


0.080 







In case hardening it must be remembered that 
the temperature of the furnace is not the same as 
the temperature of the piece being case hardened. 
The heat has to first penetrate through the walls of 
the box and then through the case hardening mix- 
ture, and consequently the piece being carbonized 
will be at a lower temperature than the furnace 
itself. 

Where accurate results are required it is a good 
plan to make a few experiments by placing a thermo 
couple in contact with or near the pieces being 
treated, and also another thermo couple in the 
furnace so the difference in temperature between the 
furnace and the piece can be observed. 

Heat Treatment after Carbonizing 
When carbonization has been completed the 
hardening process is next undertaken, and it is of 
the greatest importance that this be carried out 
accurately and scientifically if uniform and depend- 
able results are to be obtained. 

It must be remembered that the carbonized pieces 
have been held at a temperature considerably above 
the critical range during a long period of time; and 
it, therefore, follows that the grain of the steel has 
been coarsened. 



[62] 




ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

After hardening, the surface or case of a carbon- 
ized part will be intensely hard and brittle, and will 
in consequence not have any great degree of tough- 
ness. For these reasons it is necessary that we 
depend on the center or core of the piece to support 
the hard outside surface; and we must, therefore, 
bend our efforts toward putting the core in the 
best possible condition in 
regard to granular struc- 
ture, strength, and elas- 
ticity. 

Speaking generally,the 
best method of obtaining 
this result is by first cool- 
ing the parts slowly, this 
being accomplished by allowing them to remain 
in the case hardening boxes until comparatively 
cold, then removing and proceeding with a refining 
treatment. 

On page 92 will be found formulae which may be 
used as a general guide for carbonizing operations. 
The important fact to remember is that no set rule 
can be given to cover all cases. Where a new job 
is undertaken time and money will be saved if the 
heat treater will take samples of the steel he intends 
working with, and submit them to the process he 
contemplates using for the work in hand. Should 
the treatment contemplated not be correct, the 
samples will show it and steps can be taken to avoid 
the loss of material and time that would result had 
tests not been made. It must be realized that 
experience and patience are necessary when good 
dependable results are to be obtained. Your first 
batch may turn out well. If it does you are very 
fortunate, but if it does not, don't be discouraged. 
If you fail there is a reason. Study it out and correct 
it next time. 

[63] 



joseph t. ryerson & son 
Packing 

Inasmuch as the heat in case hardening must 
penetrate first through the containing boxes and 
then through the case hardening mixture before 
reaching the surface of the steel, it is obvious that a 
uniform temperature on all parts of the piece being 
case hardened can not be obtained unless the piece 
is surrounded on all sides by equal thickness of case 
hardening mixture. As the rate and depth of 
penetration depend upon the temperature, it is 
obvious that to obtain uniform results we must 
surround the pieces being case hardened as nearly 
as possible with a uniform amount of case hardening 
mixture. 

Packing is an important operation in case harden- 
ing and care should be used to see that the pieces 
being treated are placed as nearly as possible in the 
center of the case hardening box. 

It is not wise to use very large case hardening 
boxes or to endeavor to place too many parts in the 
one box. When this is done the parts nearest the 
wall of the box will naturally attain a very much 
higher temperature than those near the center, and 
a nonuniform result will be secured. 

Superficial Case Hardening. Where an extremely 
thin surface of hardened steel is required, and in 
cases where such hardening must be obtained 
quickly, the following method may be employed, 
although the results are not uniform nor, as a rule, 
particularly good : 

Melt sufficient potassium cyanide in a pot so as 
to form a bath in which the parts to be case hardened 
may be immersed. 

Raise the temperature of the molten potassium 
cyanide to about 1550° Fahr., and allow the parts 
to remain in this bath for about fifteen minutes. 
The length of time that the parts remain in the 

[64] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

cyanide bath will depend on their size, but in any 
event it will be necessary that they remain for a 
sufficient length of time to insure uniform heat 
penetration all the way through to the center. 

Ten minutes immersion will give a penetration of 
about 0.005 inch and twenty minutes a penetration 
of about 0.01 inch when using a straight carbon 
steel such as S. A. E. 1020. 

The pieces should be removed from the cyanide 
bath and plunged directly into cold water, after 
which the surface will be found to be hard and the 
interior core in a fairly good condition. 

Great care must be used in employing a molten 
cyanide bath, inasmuch as this material will give 
off highly poisonous fumes which should be carried 
off by suitable apparatus. 

In case hardening it must be borne in mind that 
there are two objectives: The first, which is well 
known and commonly recognized, consists in 
obtaining a hard exterior surface, intended, of 
course, to resist wear and abrasion. The other, 
which is frequently overlooked although of equal 
importance, is the building up of a core of adequate 
strength and toughness so that it may give the 
proper support to the exterior or wearing surface. 

In case hardening we believe it very necessary to 
examine the finished pieces in a more comprehensive 
manner than merely testing the exterior for hard- 
ness. The core examination referred to can be 
carried out by either cutting through one of the 
pieces, polishing the section and subjecting it to 
microscopic examination, or, in the event of the lack 
of the necessary equipment for such examination, a 
very good idea can be obtained by partially cutting 
through the piece and then fracturing. This will 
give an opportunity to examine the granular struc- 
ture of the steel, and the thickness of the case. 



[65] 



EPH T. RYERSON 



CHAPTER XV 

GENERAL REMARKS 



HAVING read the previous chapters the reader 
will now understand the reasons underlying 
the following general remarks on the subject 
of the use of alloy steels. 

If you are sure of what particular steel to use for 
a certain purpose, well and good; but if doubt exists 
in your mind, put the matter up to some reliable 
seller of this material. The sales department of the 
mills and the large warehouses are handling thou- 
sands of tons of alloy steel every day, and their wide 
experience will undoubtedly have covered the point 
on which you are not sure. 

Do not buy too much on a price basis. Original 
cost must naturally be taken into account; but in 
view of the large amount of work that is done on 
alloy steel in the way of machining and heat treating 
and the vital importance of the parts manufactured 
being up to standard, it is absolutely essential that 
first class material be obtained. Remember that 
analysis is not the only point to be considered in the 
selection of alloy steels. Freedom from pipes, 
seams and other defects, accuracy in the matter of 
size, straightness of the bars, finish of the surface, 
and many other points are of great importance. 
Steel may conform to your specification in analysis 
and yet be made in such a way that it will develop 
cracks, checks, or other defects when it is subjected 
to the violent action of a quenching process. 

In heating alloy steels, do not place a cold bar 
in an extremely hot furnace. This will apply more 
in the case of larger bars, and the reason will be 

[66] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

obvious if the notes on this subject as given in 
another part of this book are read. Do not expect 
to get the same physical properties from a 10 inch 
round forging as you will from a 1 inch round bar 
just because the analysis may be the same and 
because you give it the same heat treatment. Where 
high physical properties are required from large 
forgings or large rolled bars, the desired result can 
to a certain extent be obtained by using a quenching 
temperature higher than that which would be used 
with a smaller section. However, irrespective of the 
size of the bar, the quenching temperature must not 
be raised to a point which will be detrimental to the 
steel. As a safe rule, do not exceed the quenching 
temperatures given in this book by more than 150° 
Fahr. Where large sections are being heat treated, 
higher physical properties will be obtained by 
raising the temperature, as already mentioned, and 
by using a quicker quenching medium; thus cold 
water may be substituted for oil in certain cases. 

Do not place a heavy flat bar directly on the brick 
bottom of a furnace and then expect the lower part 
of the bar to have the same temperature as the top. 
Keep the pieces which you are heating slightly 
raised from the bottom of the furnace so that the 
hot gases can circulate around them, but in doing 
so place your supports sufficiently close together so 
that the hot bars will not sag down between the 
supports and thus become bent and crooked. A bar 
can be heated uniformly by placing it on the bottom 
of the furnace provided that it is turned over at fre- 
quent intervals. This method is satisfactory only 
in cases where a few pieces are being heated at once 
and where the operator can give the time necessary 
to constantly watch the heating operation. So 
arrange your shop that the distance between your 
furnace and the quenching bath is as short as 
possible. As soon as a steel has reached its proper 

[67] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

quenching temperature all the way through to the 
center, it should be immediately quenched, and it 
should be quenched on a rising or stationary heat 
and not on a falling heat. If the distance between 
the furnace and the quenching bath is great, or if 
the method of handling the steel is clumsy and 
inefficient, considerable time will elapse between 
removing the bars from the furnace and the actual 
quenching. When this condition exists it will be 
necessary to overheat the bars in the first instance, 
which will tend to give a poor result. 

If time is lost between the removal of steel from 
the furnace and the quench, and should the bars be 
heated to the correct quenching temperature, then 
by the time they reach the bath they will have 
dropped below this point, and, in consequence, the 
heat treatment will not be effective. 

When you have finished your work and submitted 
it to physical tests, you may find that your physical 
properties are either higher or lower than you 
intended them to be. The remedy will, of course, 
lie in a change of the heat treatment formula that 
you originally used; and it is, therefore, obvious that 
accurate records of all operations should be kept. 

It is a good plan, where considerable work is 
being done, to use a regular heat treatment form. 
A place for the customer's name, order numbers, 
description of the parts, sizes, weights, etc., should 
appear at the top. Under this should appear your 
shop instructions or heat treatment formula, and 
opposite this space there should be blank spaces for 
the shop men to fill in the actual temperatures and 
times which were used in executing the order. 

Such a record properly kept will give invaluable 
information in reference to any particular order that 
has been handled in the past, and can also be used 
as a basis for determining rapidly and accurately the 
most desirable heat treatment formula for other work. 

[68 J 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



TOOK 




Universal Mill. Rolls plates and bars on all four sides. 

Insist on the heat treating shop being kept clean 
and neat, and do not allow refuse bars and other 
scrap to accumulate. Such material gets in the way 
and cuts down the general shop efficiency, and there 
is always a possibility of bars of different analysis 
getting mixed up. 

In selecting shop equipment for heat treating, do 
not depend on your own judgment too much unless 
you have had considerable past experience. Turn 
your problems over to reliable furnace people, and 
thus get the benefit of their experience for which 
they have probably paid a good price. 

As we have explained elsewhere, rapid heating 
tends to expand the outside of a bar more quickly 
than the inside, thus giving it a tendency to crack. 
The reverse, of course, is true in quenching, inasmuch 

[69] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

as the outside of the bar will shrink more rapidly 
than the inside, and this also has a tendency to 
crack the steel. For these reasons, it is obvious that 
square corners are to be avoided as much as possible, 
and wherever a radius or fillet can be used it renders 
the heat treatment much more safe. 

Don't try to heat a piece of steel to 700° Fahr. in 
a furnace that shows a temperature of 1100 or 1200° 
Fahr. In other words, have your furnace at the 
maximum temperature which you desire the steel 
to attain, and then let the steel come up to the full 
furnace temperature. Where a furnace temperature 
is used which is in excess of the temperature desired 
in the steel, the outside part of the piece will reach 
the desired temperature before the inside, and you 
will not be able to allow the steel to remain in the 
furnace for sufficient length of time for the heat to 
penetrate all the way through. 

Remember in drawing that the time element is of 
importance, and it is better to use a slightly lower 
temperature for a longer period of time, inasmuch 
as the changes brought about in the structure of the 
steel by a certain drawing temperature are more 
uniform throughout the whole piece when this 
temperature can be held for a considerable length of 
time. Bear in mind that a certain drawing tem- 
perature held for an hour will produce the same 
physical properties as a much higher temperature 
held for ten minutes. The result of the long draw 
will, however, be more uniform and better. 

When case hardening, select a good grade of case 
hardening mixture made by reliable people; by so 
doing your work will be more rapidly handled, 
carbon penetration will be more uniform, and the 
operation will be more economical inasmuch as you 
will be able to use the mixture over and over again 
with less frequent renewal than is necessary with a 
cheap compound. 

[70] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 

When carbonizing any piece use a pot of suitable 
size. At no point should there be less than 1 34 inches 
of case hardening mixture between the inside of the 
pot and any surface of the piece being carbonized, 
and the more nearly 1J/2 inches of case hardening 
mixture can be maintained all the way round the 
more uniform will be the result. 

Always allow your carbonized parts to cool down 
slowly after the carbonizing process. If possible, 
allow the pots and their contents to cool down out- 
side of the furnace and then follow the heat treating 
instructions which are given elsewhere. 

Where pieces are to be case hardened, do not be 
satisfied with your work just because you have 
obtained a hard surface. A piece of common cold 
rolled shafting or screw stock or an ordinary mild 
steel bar can, by case hardening, be made just as 
hard on the surface as the highest grade of chrome 
nickel or other alloy steel. This is no indication, 
however, that a part has been produced which will 
do the work of a properly case hardened alloy steel 
part. In some certain instances surface hardness is 
the only characteristic desired in case hardened work, 
but as a general thing the case hardened part must 
have strength as well as hardness, and this can only 
be obtained to the maximum degree by the use of a 
high grade alloy steel, properly treated. 

This book has made no attempt to cover the 
technical features of alloy steel problems, and it 
has been necessary to write in a very general way, 
only covering a few of the more important points. 
The use of alloy steel will develop many difficult 
problems, a solution of which can only be given by 
experience. Should you, therefore, be uncertain in 
regard to selection of an alloy steel, its heat treat- 
ment, or its application, do not guess at the answer 
to your question, but put it up to the people from 
whom you are purchasing your steel. 

[71] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 

Watch your furnace atmosphere. An excess of 
air is bound to give you trouble. The surface of 
your steel will decarbonize and will, therefore, not 
harden as it should, and heavy scale will be formed, 
sometimes ruining parts that are to be machined, 
or at any rate giving the machine shop a great deal 
of trouble with cutting tools that are called upon to 
remove this hard scale. 

In forging alloy steels remember that steels con- 
taining chromium must not be forged at low heats, 
inasmuch as this will develop defects in the material. 
The low limit of heat for forging steel containing 
chromium will, of course, depend upon the percent- 
age of carbon and chromium present, but it is fairly 
safe to assume that chrome nickel steels should not 
be forged at a temperature of less than 1550° Fahr. 

Chrome nickel steel of a high carbon content (from 
.55 to .65 carbon), when properly heat treated makes 
a very fine die block and one which, while sufficiently 
soft to be machined, is hard enough and tough 
enough to last for a long period of time. This is a 
great advantage in making certain drop forge dies, 
owing to the fact that the danger in quenching a 
machined die is eliminated. The manufacture of 
alloy steel die blocks is a specialty which can not be 
covered in this book, although those interested can 
obtain full information from the alloy steel producers. 

When difficulty is experienced in getting furnace 
temperature so adjusted that scaling will not occur, 
the difficulty may be overcome by placing in the 
furnace some charcoal or a piece of wood. The wood 
or charcoal will combine readily with any free 
oxygen that may be present and thus prevent 
scaling or decarbonization of the steel. 



[72] 



alloy steel in stock 
Checking Pyrometers: 

This operation is most important and can be taken 
care of without the use of expensive equipment. 
Take a clean crucible pot (fire clay or iron) and melt 
in it some pure common table salt (sodium chloride). 
Increase the temperature to about 1625° Fahr. and 
then put the thermo couple (without protecting 
tube) in the bath. As soon as the indicator shows 
that the theremo couple has reached the temperature 
of the salt, remove the pot from the fire and allow it 
to cool. During the cooling operation readings of 
the indicator should be taken every ten seconds and 
the result plotted as a time temperature curve. The 
kick or flat spot in the curve will show the point at 
which the salt solidifies or freezes. This point 
should be 1474° Fahr., and if your pyrometer 
indicates a different point you will know just what 
correction to make in your reading. 




Quenching Tank, with Circulating Pump. 



[73] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON & SON 



S. A. E. SPECIFICATIONS 

A system of numbers has been adopted for the 
naming of practically all the standard grades of alloy 
steels. These numbers give a very convenient way of 
indicating a certain alloy steel and can be used in 
sending telegrams, letters, or shop drawings and 
many other places where a full description of the 
steel would take up a lot of room. 

The first figure indicates the class of steel. The 
second figure indicates the approximate percentage 
of the principal alloying element. The last two or 
three figures represent the carbon desired in one 
hundredths of one per cent or " points.' ' 

The key list of first figures is as follows: 

1 — Carbon Steels. 

2— Nickel Steels. 

3 — Chrome Nickel Steels 

5 — Chromium Steels. 

6 — Chrome Vanadium Steels. 

9 — Silico-Manganese Steels. 

From the above SAE 3120 is a chrome nickel steel 
of about 1 per cent (1 to 1%) nickel, carbon 0.20 
(15 to 25). 

SAE 2335 is a nickel steel of about 3 per cent 
(3.25-3.75) nickel, carbon 0.35 (30-40). 

SAE 6150 is a chrome vanadium steel of about 
1 per cent chrome (0.80 to 1.10), carbon 0.50 (45-55). 

SAE 51120 is a chromium steel of about 1 per 
cent chrome (90-1.10), carbon 1.20 per cent (1.10- 
1.30). 

[74] 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



TOOK 



3J^% Nickel Steel 35-45 Carbon 

SAE Specification 2340 
Quench in oil at 1425° to 1475° Fahr. 



Drawing 
Tempera- 
ture 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


240,000 


215,000 


32.5% 


10.0% 


450 


70 


500 


230,000 


204,000 


34.5% 


11.0% 


427 


65 


600 


215,0,00 


190,000 


37.5% 


12.0% 


400 


61 


700 


196,000 


171,000 


42.0% 


13.0% 


370 


56 


800 


175,000 


150,000 


47.0% 


14.0% 


335 


51 


900 


155,000 


130,000 


51.0% 


16.0% 


295 


46 


1,000 


135,000 


110,000 


55.0% 


18.0% 


260 


42 


1,100 


117,000 


92,000 


58.0% 


20.0% 


235 


38 


1,200 


105,000 


78,000 


60.0% 


21.5% 


215 


36 


1,300 


96,000 


69,000 


61.0% 


22.0% 


205 


35 


1,400 


90,000 


60,000 


62.5% 


22.5% 


200 


35 



33^2% Nickel Steel 25-35 Carbon 

SAE Specification 2330 
Quench in Oil at 1450° to 1500° Fahr. 



Drawing 
Tempera- 
ture 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


220,000 


190,000 


35% 


10% 


436 


61 


500 


210,000 


182,000 


37% 


11% 


420 


59 


600 


198,000 


170,000 


40% 


12% 


400 


57 


700 


180,000 


154,000 


44% 


13% 


370 


54 


800 


160,000 


135,000 


49% 


14% 


330 


50 


900 ■ 


140,000 


115,000 


54% 


16% 


290 


45 


1,000 


120,000 


95,000 


59% 


18% 


250 


41 


1,100 


104,000 


77,000 


63% 


20% 


210 


37 


1,200 


92,000 


64,000 


66% 


22% 


180 


34 


1,300 


85,000 


55,000 


68% 


24% 


162 


32 


1,400 


80,000 


48,000 


70% 


25% 


150 


30 



[75] 



JOSEPH 



R Y E R S O N 



3H% Nickel Steel 15-25 Carbon 

SAE Specification 2320 
Quench in oil at 1475° to 1525° Fahr. 



Drawing 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


ture 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


170,000 


140,000 


45% 


11.0% 


375 


55 


500 


168,000 


136,000 


46% 


12.0% 


368 


54 


600 


162,000 


130,000 


48% 


13.5% 


355 


52 


700 


155,000 


123,000 


51% 


15.5% 


340 


50 


800 


145,000 


112,000 


55% 


18.5% 


310 


46 


900 


130,000 


99,000 


60% 


21.5% 


280 


42 


1,000 


112,000 


84,000 


65% 


25.0% 


240 


38 


1,100 


96,000 


68,000 


69% 


27.0% 


200 


34 


1,200 


82,000 


54,000 


72% 


29.0% 


165 


31 


1,300 


75,000 


45,000 


74% 


30.0% 


140 


29 


1,400 


70,000 


38,000 


75% 


31.0% 


125 


27 



210 Brinell considered good for machining properties. 

Chrome Nickel Steel 35-45 Carbon 

SAE Specification 3140 

Quench in oil at 1475° to 1500° Fahr. 



Drawing 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


ture 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


220,000 


190,000 


27% 


7.5% 


425 


65 


500 


210,000 


185,000 


28% 


8.0% 


410 


64 


600 


205,000 


175,000 


30% 


9.0% 


390 


62 


700 


195,000 


160,000 


34% 


10.5% 


370 


59 


800 


175,000 


140,000 


39% 


12.5% 


345 


56 


900 


150,000 


126,000 


46% 


14.0% 


315 


52 


1,000 


130,000 


105,000 


52% 


16.0% 


285 


47 


1,100 


115,000 


94,Q00 


56% 


17.0% 


255 


42 


1,200 


100,000 


84,000 


60% 


18.0% 


225 


38 


1,300 


93,000 


80,000 


61% 


19.0% 


215 


36 


1,400 


90,000 


75,000 


62% 


20% 


210 


35 



[76] 



ALLOY 



TOOK 



Chrome Nickel Steel 30-40 Carbon 

SAE Specification 3135 

Quench in oil at 1475° to 1500° Fahr. 



Drawing 
Tempera- 
ture 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


210,000 


170,000 


33% 


10.0% 


425 


58 


500 


205,000 


165,000 


36% 


10.0% 


400 


56 


600 


200,000 


160,000 


40% 


10.5% 


375 


54 


700 


190,000 


145,000 


45% 


11.0% 


360 


52 


800 


170,000 


130,000 


49% 


12.0% 


340 


49 


900 


150,000 


115,000 


54% 


13.5% 


310 


45 


1,000 


130,000 


100,000 


58% 


14.5% 


280 


41 


1,100 


115,000 


90,000 


61% 


16.0% 


250 


38 


1,200 


100,000 


80,000 


64% 


17.5% 


225 


35 


1,300 


90,000 


75,000 


66% 


19.0% 


215 


33 


1,400 


85,000 


72,000 


67% 


21.0% 


210 


30 



Chrome Nickel Steel 25-35 Carbon 

SAE Specification 3130 

Quench in oil at 1500° to 1525° Fahr. 



Drawing 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


ture 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


Hardness 


400 


190,000 


155,000 


37.5% 


10% 


365 


50 


500 


188,000 


150,000 


41.0% 


11% 


360 


49 


600 


180,000 


140,000 


46.0% 


12% 


350 


48 


700 


167,000 


128,000 


52.0% 


13% 


325 


46 


800 


150,000 


115,000 


59.0% 


15% 


315 


43 


900 


134,000 


102,000 


63.0% 


17% 


282 


40 


1,000 


120,000 


90,000 


65.0% 


20% 


260 


38 


1,100 


104,000 


81,000 


66.0% 


23% 


223 


35 


1,200 


92,000 


76,000 


68.0% 


26% 


215 


32 


1,300 


86,000 


72,000 


69.0% 


28% 


210 


31 


1,400 


80,000 


70,000 


70.0% 


30% 


200 


30 



[77] 



JOSEPH T . 



R Y E R S O N 



Chrome Nickel Steel 15-25 Carbon 

SAE Specification 3120 

Quench in oil at 1575° to 1600° Fahr. 



Drawing 


Tensile 


Elastic 


Red. of 


Ext. in 


Brinell 


Sclero- 


Tempera- 
ture 


Strength 


Limit 


Area 


2 Inch 


Hardness 


scope 
Hardness 


400 


160,000 


120,000 


52.5% 


15.0% 


275 


46 


500 


155,000 


116,000 


54.0% 


15.5% 


265 


45 


600 


148,000 


110,000 


57.0% 


16.0% 


250 


44 


700 


137,000 


102,000 


61.0% 


16.5% 


240 


42 


800 


125,000 


95,000 


65.0% 


18.0% 


225 


41 


900 


111,000 


84,000 


69.0% 


21.0% 


205 


38 


1,000 


100,000 


74,000 


71.0% 


24.5% 


185 


35 


1,100 


91,000 


66,000 


71.5% 


28.5% 


175 


33 


1,200 


84,000 


60,000 


72.0% 


31.5% 


160 


30 


1,300 


80,000 


54,000 


72.5% 


33.5% 


150 


29 


1,400 


75,000 


50,000 


72.5% 


35.0% 


150 


28 



[78] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



DEFINITIONS 

Tensile Stkength — Generally expressed in 
pounds per square inch and as such represents the 
greatest load a bar, whose sectional area is one 
square inch (1" square, Yf x 2", 1.13* round, etc.), 
can sustain when applied gradually in direction of 
its length. 

Ultimate Stkength — From practical standpoint 
same as Tensile Strength. 

Elastic Limit — A term usually expressed in 
pounds per square inch. If this stress is exceeded 
the specimen will take a permanent set; for example, 
a spring stressed beyond its elastic limit will not 
return to its original shape when load is released. 

Yield Point — From practical standpoint may be 
considered same as Elastic Limit. 

Safe Load — The stress that may with safety be 
applied to any part. This stress must never exceed 
the elastic limit and is usually considerably less than 
this figure. 

Elongation or Extension — The amount of 
stretch in a test specimen produced by application 
of stress sufficient to cause breakage usually ex- 
pressed as a percentage of a 2" length, marked off 
before stress is applied. 

Reduction or Area or Contraction of Area — 
Amount of reduction in cross section of a broken 
test specimen expressed as a percent of the original 



[79] 



JOSEPH 



R Y E R S O N 



SON 



Heat Temperatures and Colors 
for Hardening 



CENTIGRADE 


FAHRENHEIT 


COLORS 


DEGREES 


DEGREES 


400 


752 


Red Heat, visible in the dark 


474 


884 


Red Heat, visible in the twilight 


525 


977 


Red Heat, visible in the daylight 


581 


1077 


Red Heat, visible in the sunlight 


700 


1292 


Dark Red 


800 


1472 


Dull Cherry Red 


900 


1652 


Cherry Red 


1000 


1832 


Bright Cherry Red 


1100 


2012 


Orange Red 


1200 


2192 


Orange Yellow 


1300 


2372 


Yellow White 


1400 


2552 


White Welding Heat 



Heats and Temper Colors of Steel 
Produced by Heat 



CENTIGRADE 


FAHRENHEIT 


COLORS 


DEGREES 


DEGREES 


215.6 


420 


Very Faint Yellow 


221.11 


430 


Very Pale Yellow 


226.67 


440 


Light Yellow 


232.23 


450 


Pale Straw Yellow 


237.78 


460 


Straw Yellow 


243.34 


470 


Deep Straw Yellow 


248.9 


480 


Dark Yellow 


254.45 


490 


Yellow Brown 


260 


500 


Brown Yellow 


265.56 


510 


Red Brown 


271.11 


520 


Brown Purple 


276.67 


530 


Light Purple 


282.23 


540 


Full Purple 


287.78 


550 


Dark Purple 


293.34 


560 


Light Blue 


298.9 


570 


Dark Blue 



[80] 



alloy steel in stock 
Flash and Fire Tests op Various Oils 

Flash Degrees Fire Degrees 
Name Fahrenheit Fahrenheit 

Corn 480 635 

Cottonseed 582 644 

Prime Lard* {g^} 644 

No. 2 Lard** 419 468 

Boiled Linseed 378 572 

Raw Linseed 525 644 

Neatsfoot 439 523 

Olive 451 541 

Light Mineral Oil (25° Beaume) 410 475 

75% Light Mineral, 225% Neatsfoot. . . 410 471 

75% Light Mineral, 50% Lard 410 489 

50% Light Mineral, 5Q% Lard 423 513 

25% Light Mineral, 75% Lard 441 543 

Sperm No. 1 428 518 

Sperm No. 2 486 .574 

*Acidity not to exceed 2.0 per cent, determined as Oleic Acid. 
**Acidity not to exceed 15.0 per cent, determined as Oleic Acid. 



Melting Points of Chemical Elements 

Supplied by the United States Bureau of Standards in Wash- 
ington from latest determinations. These values are the most 
accurate procurable at the present time. The values originally 
determined in Centigrade have been converted directly into 
Fahrenheit, and these Fahrenheit readings should not be taken 
as correct to a degree at the higher temperatures. 



Element 


Cent. 


Fahr. 


Element 


Cent. 


Fahr. 




659 
630 
850 
271 
2200? 
810 
3600? 
—102 
1520 
1480 
1083 
1063 
—259 
113 
2350? 
1530 
327 
651 
1260 


1218 
1166 
1562 
520 
3992? 
1490 
6510? 

—151 
2768 
2696 
1981 
1945 

—434 
236 
4262? 
2786 
621 
1204 
2300 




3g 

2500? 

1452 

—210 

— 218 

1549 

+44 

1755 

62 

1420 

960 

97 

113 

2850? 

232 

1800? 

3000? 

1720? 

419 


—38 




Molybdenum 


4532? 




2646 






—346 






—360 






2820 






+111 
3191 










144 


Cobalt 




2588 




Silver 


1761 


Gold 


Sodium. . . , 

Sulphur SI 


207 




236 






5160? 




Tin 


450 






3272? 






5430? 






3128? 


Manganese 


Zinc 


787 



['.81 ] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON 



TEMPERATURES 



Conversion Tables 





Degrees 








Degrees 






Centigrade 


and Fahrenheit 




Fahrenheit and Centigrade 




C 


F 


C 


F 


C 


F 


F 


C 


F 


C 


F 


C 





32 


520 


968 


860 


1580 


32 





1040 


560 


1720 


938 


100 


212 


530 


986 


870 


1598 


212 


100 


1060 


571 


1740 


949 


200 


392 


540 


1004 


880 


1616 


400 


204 


1080 


582 


1760 


960 


210 


410 


550 


1022 


890 


1634 


420 


216 


1100 


593 


1780 


971 


220 




560 


1040 


900 


1652 


440 


227 


1120 


604 


1800 


982 


230 


4-ir 


570 


1058 


910 


1670 


460 


238 


1140 


615 


1820 


993 


240 


464 


580 


1076 


920 


1688 


480 


249 


1160 


626 


1840 


1004 


250 


4S2 


590 


1094 


930 


1706 


500 


260 


1180 


637 


1860 


1015 


260 


500 


600 


1112 


940 


1724 


520 


271 


1200 


648 


1880 


1026 


270 


518 


610 


1130 


950 


1742 


540 


282 


1220 


659 


1900 


1038 


280 


536 


620 


1148 


960 


1760 


560 


293 


1240 


670 


1920 


1049 


290 


554 


630 


1166 


970 


1778 


580 


305 


1260 


681 


1940 


1060 


300 


572 


640 


1184 


980 


1796 


600 


316 


1280 


693 


1960 


1071 


310 


590 


650 


1202 


990 


1814 


620 


327 


1300 


705 


1980 


1082 


320 


608 


660 


1220 


1000 


1832 


640 


338 


1320 


716 


2000 


1093 


330 


626 


670 


1238 


1010 


1850 


660 


349 


1340 


727 


2020 


1105 


340 


644 


680 


1256 


1020 


1868 


680 


360 


1360 


738 


2040 


1116 


350 


662 


690 


1274 


1030 


1886 


700 


371 


1380 


749 


2060 


1127 


360 


680 


700 


1292 


1040 


1904 


720 


382 


1400 


760 


2080 


1138 


370 


698 


710 


1310 


1050 


1922 


740 


393 


1420 


771 


2100 


1149 


380 


716 


720 


1328 


1060 


1940 


760 


405 


1440 


782 


2120 


1160 


390 


734 


730 


1346 


1070 


1958 


780 


416 


1460 


793 


2140 


1171 


400 


752 


740 


1364 


1080 


1976 


800 


427 


1480 


804 


2160 


1182 


410 


770 


750 


1382 


1090 


1994 


820 


438 


1500 


816 


2180 


1193 


420 


788 


760 


1400 


1100 


2012 


840 


449 


1520 


827 


2200 


1204 


430 


806 


770 


1418 


1110 


2030 


860 


460 


1540 


838 


2220 


1216 


440 




780 


1436 


1120 


2048 


880 


471 


1560 


849 


2240 


1227 


450 




790 


1454 


1130 


2066 


900 


482 


1580 


860 


2260 


1238 


460 


860 


800 


1472 


1140 


2084 


920 


493 


1600 


871 


2280 


1249 


470 


878 


810 


1490 


1150 


2102 


940 


504 


1620 


882 


2300 


1260 


480 


896 


820 


1508 


1160 


2120 


960 


516 


1640 


893 


2320 


1271 


490 


914 


830 


1526 


1170 


2138 


980 


527 


1660 


904 


2340 


1283 


500 


932 


840 


1544 


1180 


2156 


1000 


538 


1680 


915 


2360 


1294 


510 


950 


850 


1562 


1190 


2174 


1020 


549 


1700 


927 


2380 


1305 



Rules for Conversion 

To change Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multiply by 9 and divide 
by 5, add 32. Result is equivalent Fahrenheit temperature. 

To change Fahrenheit to Centigrade, subtract 32, multiply 
remainder by 5 and divide by 9. Result is equivalent Centigrade 
temperature. 



[82] 



ALLOY STEEL IN STOCK 



13 3 







N©WO 


N^g 


o<*oocm 


cocoon 


OOfflN 


00 0)0 






05 00 00 00 












us 






N^ino 




00M00N 








Nineco 


focor^oo 








>os» 








oJ2(M^ 




cqiocoo 


t~"*T-^ 










^.T^^H^H 


-H CM CM CM 


coeormo 


lOCOt- 




ooooeo-* 


rtOiNN 


t-coooco 


CMOoOlr- 


fflwON 


WON 










«OMO 

OfflHN 


SSoiO 


■* go coco 


HOC 




o 


N™NO 


COWOO^ 


OOOt- 








NNNW 


N»WO 




COCOT-Kt- 












1-1 


^^^H(M 


CM <M CO CO 


tH^iO 




NOW'* 


CO 00©-* 


OOCMCOO 


OOOO 


oooo 


©o© 






t— CD COO 


MONO 


OlOOST)! 


©CD <M00 


nonce 


»Ot-© 






"III 


<*t-o-* 












OCOCD* 




rtCOOlO 


lOCO.Ot- 


WON. 








CMCOCOtH 


«3>OOI> 










0tHi _,^ 




*-H<MCMCM 


Sooo 


iOlOCOr- 


OOOO 








oiooo 


OOOO 




©Oi-i 




o 


853S 






r-io<M© 


«r-«o©ua 


orao 










OOON^ 


iliNHMl 








HHH 


rH CM CM CM 


COCO-*-* 


Wt-O0O> 


OHTftO 


oo^co 




-*00eN)»O 


OCdcOCO 


OOOWN 


©COCO* 


NOON 


00 -^O 






0^03 CM 






050N-* 












11NC5N 


CO^CSJO 












HOlrtCO 


NNOO 




CM^H© 






1-H.-I 








OOOi-ICO 






-#OlOO 


COt-i-HO 


Mto ^ N 


MCOMtJI 


lOtOcbt- 


OOOO 








oSoo 




0(M-*CD 


000*00 






CO 


loiooio 


OOOO 












r-ct-OO 






r-3c§© 




©>o© 


Pn 








cmcmcmco 


eo-*ioco 


5DNOO 














^ 


*-l^^ 




<M00 CD ^« 


=^^J2°° 


<-!•■*< r-O 


00 to COO 


OOiOOiO 


OlOO 




lOOOffl 




OO^OCD 














^^t-O 






53 




JhiOCOoO 


(SOHM 


COOOOCO 


oo!*©cD 


Ht-.OO 


<MC0»O 












CM CO-*-* 




OO^H 


i 

w 


















COOCOCM 


00-«#O(M 


TtfCOOO^H 


rtrHrtTH 


^H^CMCM 


CM CO CO 


<NI 


SSoS 


tOHcoin 
r- cor* 1-4 


ooScso 


<-i co co oo 


©COtSlM 


isl 


3 












00NOO! 


cor- 00 












CO-* to to 


















oooooeo 


0o0ino 


100*0 


00 CO CO i-< 


©COr-HCO 


(Mt-CM 




OOCONrl 


OOONlO 


00 CM CO© 




ONUJ 




o 


iooio*-i 


NNCOO 


cq^iot- 




*MNH 


OCON 






(NM^ 




COffiOH 


^r-Oco 


r-CMOO 










HH 


rHHCqN 


NNM '* 


*»OiO 




0ffllCH 


NMO!H 


CM-*COOO 


t-r-coc© 


^^gC. 


^O© 






t-t-ioco 


OOOWH 










o 




co co «o io 


OOCMCO© 




©00 lO 




CM CM CO 










OONN 












HHHH 


WNIMM 


CO'*-* 




«o»n 


OOOCOrl 


^coooo 


OOOO 


OOi-Hr-H 


_,__, 










«o<o« 


oo -*o 

OOOCD 




00 




OCONlO 


lOCDCDt2 


*(Mt^© 














OWN 












HH,H 


HHNN 


CO CO CO 




OOOr-iO 


CO^OlO 


©cocmoo 


t^eocoio 


lO-*CO(M 


i-iOOO 








OONllJ 


MOOOlO 


©COt-r-H 








tr- 


CN^r-O 




OtOHN 






oi" 






NNNCO 


Tli'ltiOiO 


NOOOH 


CM*#t-© 














H,H 


i-Hi-li-lCM 


CNKMCM 




NOOffirH 


cm-*iooo 


!-H-*NO 


OOiOCOO 


OOCO^cO 


^CO^H 






wotooo 


oconccM 


OO^OtO 


r-ir-©© 








CMOCM* 






©OCM* 


OOrt 










cm coco-* 


iOCOt-00 
















rtrHrH 


rtHcq 




f-^^HOO 


WNgN 


(OO^OO 


(MCOi-llO 


o^eoco 


OOOO 




io 






glO-*CO 




g^rHOO 


lOrHOO 










CO-*-HO0 














TT" 




cOc-00© 


Sis 




5 














i 


=i 
















a 


HisSN 


OOOJON 


■^(0 000 


100160 


»oooo 


So 00 














•*iO<ON 




| 












*■* 


< 


5 















[83] 



JOSEPH 



RYERSON A SON 



Weight of Round and Square Steel 
per Lineal Inch 



Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 





.00 


.0000 





2.01 


2.55 





8.03 


10.2 


1-16 


.00 


.0011 


1-16 


2.09 


2.658 


1-16 


8.20 


10.416 


1-8 


.00 


.0044 


1-8 


2.18 


2.767 


1-8 


8.37 


10.633 


3-16 


.00 


.0995 


3-16 


2.27 


2.88 


3-16 


8.54 


10,850 


1-4 


.01 


.0177 


1-4 


2.36 


2.993 


1-4 


8.71 


11.067 


5-16 


.02 


.0278 


5-16 


2.45 


3.110 


5-16 


8.89 


11.292 


3-8 


.03 


.0398 


3-8 


2.54 


3.227 


3-8 


9.07 


11.517 


n 7l6 

U i_2 


.04 


.0542 


7-16 
i_2 


2.64 


3.348 


fi 7 " 16 
i_2 


9.25 


11.742 


.06 


.0708 


2.73 


3.471 


9.43 


11.967 


9-16 


.07 


.0897 


9-16 


2.83 


3.595 


9-16 


9.61 


12.208 


6-8 


.09 


.1107 


5-8 


2.93 


3.723 


5-8 


9.79 


12.433 


11-16 


.11 


.1341 


11-16 


3.03 


3.853 


11-16 


9.98 


12.675 


3-4 


.13 


.1580 


3-4 


3.14 


3.985 


3-4 


10.16 


12.908 


13-16 


.15 


.1870 


13-16 


3.24 


4.118 


13-16 


10.35 


13.15 


7-8 


.17 


.2166 


7-8 


3.35 


4.254 


7-8 


10.54 


13.4 


15-16 


.20 


.2490 


15-16 


3.46 


4.392 


15-16 


10.74 


13.633 





.22 


.2833 





3.57 


4.533 





10.93 


13.883 


1-16 


.25 


.3209 


1-16 


3.68 


4.776 


1-16 


11.13 


14.133 


1-8 


.28 


.3585 


1-8 


3.80 


4.821 


1-8 


11.33 


14.383 


3-16 


.31 


.3995 


3-16 


3.91 


4.968 


3-16 


11.52 


14.633 


1-4 


.35 


.4426 


1-4 


4.03 


5.117 


1-4 


11.73 


14.892 


5-16 


.38 


.4880 


5-16 


4.14 


5.27 


5-16 


11.93 


15.15 


3-8 


.42 


.5356 


3-8 


4.27 


5.423 


3-8 


12.13 


15.409 


1 7-16 
1 1-2 


.46 


.5855 


A 7-16 
**" 1-2 


4.39 


5.579 


7 7-16 
• 1-2 


12.34 


15.675 


.50 


.6375 


4.52 


5.737 


12.55 


15.947 


9-16 


.54 


.6917 


9-16 


4.64 


5.898 


9-16 


12.76 


16.208 


5-8 


.59 


.7481 


5-8 


4.77 


6.061 


5-8 


12.97 


16.475 


11-16 


.64 


.8068 


11-16 


4.90 


6.225 


11-16 


13.18 


16.743 


3-4 


.68 


.8675 


3-4 


5.03 


6.392 


3-4 


13.40 


17.017 


13-16 


.73 


.9308 


13-16 


5.17 


6.562 


13-16 


13.61 


17.300 


7-8 


.78 


.9958 


7-8 


5.30 


6.734 


7-8 


13.84 


17.567 


15-16 


.84 


1.063 


15-16 


5.44 


6.908 


15-16 


14.05 


17.85 





.89 


1.133 





5.58 


7.083 





14.28 


18.133 


1-16 


.95 


1.2051 


1-16 


5.72 


7.262 


1-16 


14.50 


18.420 


1-8 


1.01 


1.279 


1-8 


5.86 


7.442 


1-8 


14.73 


18.708 


3-16 


1.07 


1.355 


3-16 


6.00 


7.624 


3-16 


14.95 


19. 


1-4 


1.13 


1.435 


1-4 


6.15 


7.81 


1-4 


15.18 


19.283 


5-16 


1.19 


1.515 


5-16 


6.30 


7.997 


5-16 


15.41 


19.575 


3-8 


1.26 


1.598 


3-8 


6.45 


8.186 


3-8 


15.65 


19.875 


7-16 
* 1-2 


1.33 


1.683 


C 7-16 
i_2 


6.60 


8.375 


7-16 
1-2 


15.88 


20.167 


1.39 


1.770 


6.75 


8.567 


16.12 


20.467 


9-16 


1.46 


1.860 


9-16 


6.90 


8.767 


9-16 


16.36 


20.775 


5-8 


1.54 


1.952 


5-8 


7.06 


8.967 


5.8 


16.60 


21.075 


11-16 


1.61 


2.046 


11-16 


7.22 


9.167 


11-16 


16.83 


21.383 


3-4 


1.69 


2.083 


3-4 


7.38 


9.367 


3-4 


17.08 


21.692 


13-16 


1.76 


2.241 


13-16 


7.54 


9.575 


13-16 


17.32 


22.008 


7-8 


1.84 


2.341 


7-8 


7.70 


9.783 


7-8 


17.57 


22.325 


15-16 


1.92 


2.445 


15-16 


7.86 


9.992 


15-16 


17.82 


22.633 



[84] 



ALLOY 



STOCK 



Weight of Round and Square Steel 
per Lineal Inch 



Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 





18.07 


22.950 





32.13 


40.800 





50.19 


63.768 


1-16 


18.32 


23.270 


1-16 


32.46 


41.232 


1-16 


50.61 


64.291 


1-8 


18.58 


23.600 


1-8 


32.80 


41.664 


1-8 


51.03 


64.832 


3-16 


18.83 


23.917 


3-16 


33.13 


42.096 


3-16 


51.45 


65.366 


1-4 


19.09 


24.242 


1-4 


33.48 


42.528 


1-4 


51.87 


65.900 


5-16 


19.34 


24.575 


5-16 


33.81 


42.963 


5-16 


52.30 


66.436 


3-8 


19.61 


24.908 


3-8 


34.17 


43.400 


3-8 


52.73 


66.972 


7-16 
3 1-2 


19.87 


25.233 


121? 


34.51 


43.833 


IE 7-16 
10 1-2 


53.16 


67.520 


20.13 


25.567 


34.86 


44.268 


53.59 


68.068 


9-16 


20.40 


25.908 


9-16 


35.21 


44.718 


9-16 


54.02 


68.634 


5-8 


20.67 


26.25 


5-8 


35.56 


45.168 


5-8 


54.46 


69.200 


11-16 


20.93 


26.591 


11-16 


35.91 


45.618 


11-16 


54.89 


69.734 


3-4 


21.21 


26.933 


3-4 


36.27 


46.068 


3-4 


55.33 


70.268 


13-16 


21.48 


27.283 


13-16 


36.62 


46.518 


13-16 


55.77 


70.834 


7-8 


21.76 


27.633 


7-8 


36.98 


46.968 


7-8 


56.21 


71.400 


15-16 


22.03 


27.983 


15-16 


37.33 


47.418 


15-16 


56.66 


71.966 





22.31 


28.333 





37.70 


47.868 





57.10 


72.533 


1-16 


22.59 


28.683 


1-16 


38.06 


48.35 


1-16 


57.55 


73.102 


1-8 


22.87 


29.042 


1-8 


38.42 


48.832 


1-8 


57.99 


73.671 


3-16 


23.15 


29.408 


3-16 


38.79 


49.282 


3-16 


58.45 


74.251 


1-4 


23.44 


29.767 


1-4 


39.16 


49.732 


1-4 


58.90 


74.832 


5-16 


23.72 


30.133 


5-16 


39.53 


50.218 


5-16 


59.35 


75.416 


3-8 


24.01 


30.5 


3-8 


39.90 


50.704 


3-8 


59.81 


76.000 


101? 


24.30 


30.867 


hi? 


40.28 


51.168 


161? 


60.27 


76.566 


24.60 


31.242 


40.65 


51.632 


60.73 


77.132 


9-16 


24.89 


31.617 


9-16 


41.03 


52.116 


9-16 


61.19 


77.726 


5-8 


25.19 


31.983 


5-8 


41.41 


52.600 


5-8 


61.65 


78.316 


11-16 


25.48 


32.358 


11-16 


41.79 


53.100 


11-16 


62.11 


78.908 


3-4 


25.78 


32.741 


3-4 


42.17 


53.600 


3-4 


62.58 


79.500 


13-16 


26.08 


33.125 


13-16 


42.56 


54.066 


13-16 


63.05 


80.084 


7-8 


26.39 


33.508 


7-8 


42.94 


54.532 


7-8 


63.52 


80.668 


15-16 


26.68 


33.900 


15-16 


43.33 


55.032 


15-16 


63.99 


81.275 





27.00 


34.283 





43.72 


55.532 





64.46 


81.883 


1-16 


27.30 


34.675 


1-16 


44.11 


56.032 


1-16 


64.94 


82.481 


1-8 


27.61 


35.075 


1-8 


44.50 


56.532 


1-8 


65.41 


83.080 


3-16 


27.92 


35.458 


3-16 


44.90 


57.032 


3-16 


65.89 


83.690 


1-4 


28.24 


35.858 


1-4 


45.29 


57.532 


1-4 


66.37 


84.300 


5-16 


28.54 


36.258 


5-16 


45.69 


58.032 


5-16 


66.85 


84.919 


3-8 


28.87 


36.658 


3-8 


46.09 


58.532 


3-8 


67.34 


85.532 


1 1 7-16 
1 "1-2 


29.19 


37.067 


141? 


46.49 


59.058 


17 7-16 
1 « 1-2 


67.82 


86.150 


29.50 


37.467 


46.90 


59.568 


68.31 


86.768 


9-16 


29.83 


37.875 


9-16 


47.30 


60.084 


9-16 


68.80 


87.400 


5-8 


30.15 


38.291 


5-8 


47.71 


60.600 


5-8 


69.29 


88.032 


11-16 


30.47 


38.700 


11-16 


48.12 


61.118 


11-16 


69.78 


88.666 


3-4 


30.80 


39.117 


3-4 


48.53 


61.636 


3-4 


70.28 


89.300 


13-16 


31.12 


39.533 


13-16 


48.94 


62.168 


13-16 


70.77 


89.924 


7-8 


31.46 


39.875 


7-8 


49.35 


62.700 


7-8 


71.27 


90.548 


15-16 


31.79 


40.375 


15-16 


49.77 


63.234 


15-16 


71.77 


91.174 



[85] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON 



Weight of Round and Square Steel 
per Lineal Inch 



Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 


Size 


Round 


Square 





72.27 


91.800 





98.37 


124.968 





128.48 


163.2 


1-16 


72.77 


92.439 


1-16 


98.94 


125.718 


1-16 


129.17 


164.064 


1-8 


73.28 


93.079 


1-8 


99.54 


126.468 


1-8 


129.82 


164.928 


3-16 


73.78 


93.739 


3-16 


100.13 


127.200 


3-16 


130.49 


165.792 


1-4 


74.29 


94.400 


1-4 


100.72 


127.932 


1-4 


131.17 


166.656 


5-16 


74.80 


95.034 


5-16 


101.32 


128.682 


5-16 


131.85 


167.520 


3-8 


75.31 


95.668 


3-8 


101.91 


129.432 


3-8 


132.53 


168.384 


IBS' 


75.82 


96.318 


017-16 
^"1-2 


102.51 


130.198 


947-16 


133.20 


169.248 


76.34 


96.968 


103.11 


130.964 


133.89 


170.112 


9-16 


76.86 


97.634 


9-16 


103.71 


131.732 


9-16 


134.57 


170.982 


5-8 


77.38 


98.300 


5-4 


104.31 


132.500 


5-8 


135.26 


171.852 


11-16 


77.90 


98.966 


11-16 


104.91 


133.266 


11-16 


135.94 


172.726 


3-4 


78.42 


99.632 


3-4 


105.52 


134.032 


3-4 


136.63 


173.600 


13-16 


78.94 


100.282 


13-16 


106.13 


134.816 


13-16 


137. 3g 


174.466 


7-8 


79.47 


100.932 


7-8 


106.73 


135.600 


7-8 


138.02 


175.332 


15-16 


79.99 


101.600 


15-16 


107.35 


136.366 


15-16 


138.71 


176.202 





80.52 


102.268 





107.96 


137.132 


25 


139.41 


177.072 


1-16 


81.05 


102.950 


1-16 


108.57 


137.916 








1-8 


81.59 


103.632 


1-8 


109.19 


138.700 








3-16 


82.12 


104.316 


3-16 


109.81 


139.5 








1-4 


82.66 


105.000 


1-4 


110.43 


140.300 








5-16 


83.19 


105.682 


5-16 


111.05 


141.066 








3-8 


83.73 


106.364 


3-8 


111.67 


141.832 








107-16 
13 1-2 


84.27 


107.048 


22£ 6 


112.29 


142.632 








84.82 


107.732 


112.92 


143.432 








9-16 


85.36 


108.432 


9-16 


113.55 


144.232 








5-8 


85.91 


109.132 


5-8 


114.18 


145.032 








11-16 


86.45 


109.832 


11-16 


114.81 


145.832 








3-4 


87.00 


110.532 


3-4 


115.44 


146.632 








13-16 


87.56 


111.232 


13-16 


116.08 


147.450 








7-8 


88.11 


111.932 


7-8 


116.72 


148.268 








15-16 


88.66 


112.632 


15-16 


117.35 


149.068 











89.22 


113.333 





118.00 


149.868 








1-16 


89.78 


114.032 


1-16 


118.64 


150.684 








1-8 


90.34 


114.732 


1-8 


119.28 


151.500 








3-16 


90.90 


115.450 


3-16 


119.93 


152.332 








1-4 


91.47 


116.168 


1-4 


120.57 


153.164 








5-16 


92.03 


116.900 


5-16 


121.22 


153.982 








3-8 


92.60 


117.632 


3-8 


121.87 


154.800 








20 1 2 6 


93.17 


118.350 


007-16 
Z »>l-2 


122.52 


155.634 








93.74 


119.068 


123.18 


156.468 








9-16 


94.31 


119.800 


9-16 


123.84 


157.300 








5-8 


94.88 


120.532 


5-8 


124.50 


158.132 








11-16 


95.46 


121.266 


11-16 


125.15 


158.816 








3-4 


96.04 


122.000 


3-4 


125.82 


159.500 








13-16 


96.62 


122.734 


13-16 


126.48 


160.500 








7-8 


97.20 


123.468 


7-8 


127.14 


161.500 








15-16 


97.78 


124.218 


15-16 


127.81 


162.350 









[86] 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



T O C K 



Bar Steel 
Weight per Lineal Foot in Pounds 



Size 


Round 


Square 


Hexagon 


Octagon 


Vs" 


.04 


.05 


.05 


.04 


A" 


.09 


.12 


.10 


.10 


K 


.17 


.21 


.19 


.18 


16* 


.26 


.33 


.29 


.28 


H' 


.38 


.48 


.42 


.40 


*' 


.51 


.65 


.57 


.54 


Vi° 


.67 


.85 


.75 


.70 


&* 


.85 


1.08 


.94 


.89 


%' 


1.04 


1.33 


1.17 


1.10 


w 


1.27 


1.61 


1.41 


1.33 


%' 


1.50 


1.92 


1.68 


1.58 


w 


1.76 


2.24 


1.97 


1.83 


y% 


2.04 


2.60 


2.29 


2.16 


w 


2.35 


3.06 


2.62 


2.48 




2.67 


3.40 


2.99 


2.82 


w% 


3.38 


4.30 


3.78 


3.56 


1M* 


4.17 


5.31 


4.66 


4.40 


W% 


5.05 


6.43 


5.65 


5.32 


\w 


6.01 


7.65 


6.72 


6.34 


m" 


7.05 


8.98 


7.89 


7.32 


m 


8.18 


10.40 


9.14 


8.64 


w% 


9.38 


11.90 


10.50 


9.92 


2" 


10.71 


13.60 


11.95 


11.28 


m" 


12.05 


15.40 


13.49 


12.71 


VA' 


13.60 


17.20 


15.12 


14.24 


w% 


15.10 


19.20 


16.85 


15.88 


m' 


16.68 


21.20 


18.66 


17.65 


w% 


18.39 


23.50 


20.58 


19.45 


2W 


20.18 


25.70 


22.59 


21.28 


w% 


22.06 


28.20 


24.69 


23.28 


3" 


24.10 


30.60 


26.88 


25.36 


Ws 


26.12 


33.13 


29.16 


27.50 


*W 


28.30 


35.90 


31.55 


29.28 


w& 


30.45 


38.64 


34.00 


32.10 


%w 


32.70 


41.60 


36.59 


34.56 


&/% 


35.20 


44.57 


39.24 


37.05 


3^" 


37.54 


47.80 


42.00 


39.68 


V 


42.72 


54.40 


47.78 


45.12 


m° 


48.30 


61.40 


53.95 


50.84 


V-A" 


54.60 


68.90 


60.48 


56.96 


m* 


60.30 


76.70 


67.39 


63.52 


5" 


66.80 


85.00 


74.66 


70.60 


5M' 


73.60 


93.70 


82.32 


77.80 


5H' 


80.80 


102.80 


90.36 


85.15 


&A' 


88.30 


112.40 


98.76 


93.12 


6" 


96.10 


122.40 


107.52 


101.45 


m' 


113.20 


143.60 


126.20 


117.12 


V 


130.80 


166.40 


146.36 


138.24 


8" 


170.88 


217.60 


191.12 


180.48 


9" 


218.40 


275.60 


241.92 


227.84 


10" 


267.20 


340.00 


298.64 


282.40 


11' 


323.00 


411.20 


361.44 


340.60 


12' 


384.00 


489.60 


470.08 


405.80 



For High Speed add 12 per cent to above weights, 



:87] 



JOSEPH 



RYERSON & SON 





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[88] 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



STOCK 



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[89] 



JOSEPH T . 



R Y E R S O N 



Typical Tensile Strengths of Heat Treated 
Steel of Different Carbon Content 



Carbon 


Approximate Tensile Strength in Lbs. 


per Cent. 


per Square Inch. 


.05 to .10 


47,040 to 60,480 


.10 to .15 


53,760 to 64,960 


.15 to .20 


60,480 to 71,680 


.20 to .25 


64,690 to 76,160 


.25 to .30 


67,200 to 78,400 


.30 to .35 


69,440 to 82,800 


.35 to .40 


78,400 to 91,840 


.40 to .45 


87,360 to 100,800 


.45 to .50 


96,320 to 107,520 


.50 to .55 


105,280 to 118,920 


.55 to .60 


112,000 to 123,200 


.60 to .65 


116,480 to 127,680 


.65 to .70 


123,200 to 134,400 


.70 to .75 


129,920 to 138,880 


.75 to .80 


134,400 to 143,360 


.80 to .85 


136,640 to 145,600 


.85 to .90 


141,120 to 150,800 



Working Temperatures for Carbon Steels 



NAME 


Carbon 


Approx. 


Forging 


Quenching 




Content 


Temp. 


Temp. 


Temp. 


Machinery 


0.25 


1475 


1650 


1525-1575 


Machinery 


0.35 


1395 


1650 


1450-1500 


Machinery 


0.45 


1385 


1650 


1435-1485 


Crucible Machy . 


0.50 


1380 


1625 


1430-1480 


Crucible Machy . 


0.55 


1375 


1625 


1425-1475 


Tool Steel 


0.60 


1365 


1600 


1400-1460 


Tool Steel 


0.70 


1355 


1600 


1400-1460 


Tool Steel 


0.80 


1350 


1600 


1375-1450 


Tool Steel 


0.90 


1350 


1575 


1375-1450 


Tool Steel 


1.00 


1350 


1575 


1375-1450 


Tool Steel 


1.10 


1350 


1500 


1375-1430 


Tool Steel 


1.20 


1350 


1500 


1375-1420 


Tool Steel 


1.30 


1350 


1500 


1375-1420 



[90] 



ALLOY 



STEEL 



T O C K 



Millimeter Equivalents in Inches 



Millimeters 


Inches 


Millimeters 


Inches 


Millimeters 


Inches 


.10 


= 


.0039 


29 


= 


1.1417 


66 


= 


2.5984 


.20 


= 


.0079 


30 


= 


1.1811 


67 


= 


2.6378 


.30 


= 


.0118 


31 


= 


1.2205 


68 


= 


2.6772 


.40 


= 


.0157 


32 


= 


1.2599 


69 


= 


2.7165 


.50 


= 


.0197 


33 


= 


1.2992 


70 


= 


2.7559 


.60 


= 


.0236 


34 


= 


1.3386 


71 


= 


2.7953 


.70 


= 


.0276 


35 


= 


1.3780 


72 


= 


2.8346 


.80 


= 


.0315 


36 


= 


1.4173 


73 


= 


2.8740 


.90 


= 


.0354 


37 


= 


1.4567 


74 


= 


2.9134 


1 


= 


.0394 


38 


= 


1.4961 


75 


= 


2.9528 


2 


= 


.0787 


39 


= 


1.5354 


76 


= 


2.9921 


3 


= 


.1181 


40 


= 


1.5748 


77 


= 


3.0315 


4 


= 


.1575 


41 


= 


1.6142 


78 


= 


3.0709 


5 


= 


.1969 


42 


= 


1.6536 


79 


= 


3.1102 


6 


= 


.2362 


43 


= 


1.6929 


80 


= 


3.1496 


7 


= 


.2756 


44 


= 


1.7323 


81 


= 


3.1890 


8 


= 


.3150 


45 


= 


1.7717 


82 


= 


3.2283 


9 


= 


.3543 


46 


= 


1.8110 


83 


= 


3.2677 


10 


= 


.3937 


47 


= 


1.8504 


84 


= 


3.3071 


11 


= 


.4331 


48 


= 


1.8988 


85 


= 


3.3465 


12 


= 


.4724 


49 


= 


1.9291 


86 


= 


3.3858 


13 


= 


.5118 


50 


= 


1.9685 


87 


= 


3.4252 


14 


= 


.5512 


51 


= 


2.0079 


88 


= 


3.4646 


15 


= 


.5906 


52 


= 


2.0472 


89 


= 


3.5039 


16 


= 


.6299 


53 


= 


2.Q866 


90 


= 


3.5433 


17 


= 


.6693 


54 


= 


2.1260 


91 


= 


3.5827 


18 


= 


.7087 


55 


= 


2.1654 


92 


= 


3.6221 


19 


= 


.7480 


56 


= 


2.2047 


93 


= 


3.6614 


20 


= 


,7874 


57 


= 


2.2441 


94 


= 


3.7008 


21 


= 


.8268 


58 


= 


2.2835 


95 


= 


3.7402 


22 


= 


.8661 


59 


= 


2.3228 


96 


= 


3.7795 


23 


= 


.9055 


60 


= 


2.3622 


97 


= 


3.8189 


24 


= 


.9449 


61 


= 


2.4016 


98 


= 


3.8583 


25 


= 


.9843 


62 


= 


2.4409 


99 


= 


3.8976 


26 


= 


1.0236 


63 


= 


2.4803 


100 


= 


3.9370 


27 


= 


1.0630 


64 


= 


2.5197 








28 


= 


1.1024 


65 


~ 


2.5591 









[91] 



JOSEPH T. RYERSON A SON 



Typical Formulae for Carbonizing 



Chbome Nickel Steel SAE 3120: 

Carbonize at 1625 to 1700 degrees. 

Cool in box and remove. 

Re-heat to 1550 to 1600 degrees. 

Quench in oil. 

Re-heat to 1300 to 1400 degrees. 

Quench in oil or water. 

Draw to from 300 to 450 degrees. 

V/z% Nickel Steel SAE 2320: 

Carbonize at 1625 to 1675. 

Cool in boxes and remove. 

Re-heat to 1550 to 1575. 

Quench in oil. 

Re-heat to 1300 to 1400 degrees. 

Quench in oil or water. 

Draw to from 300 to 450 degrees. 

Carbon Steel SAE 1020: 

Carbonize at 1650 to 1700. 
Cool in boxes and remove. 
Re-heat to 1550 to 1600. 
Quench in oil. 
Re-heat to 1400 to 1450. 
Quench in oil or water. 
Draw to about 400 degrees. 

The above formulae are approximate and will be subject to 
change according to the size of pieces being carbonized and also 
the depth of penetration required. The final drawing tem- 
perature will have to be modified, depending on the degree of 
hardness required in the finished article. 

As in all other heat treating operations, definite formulae for 
carbonizing can best be obtained by actual experiment and a 
little time and money spent in this way will be well invested 
inasmuch as it will save the possible damaging of valuable work. 



[92] 



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[95] 



